Support me

Tuesday, July 29, 2025

21-year-old Kamikaze pilot Han Jeong-sil (한정실, 韓鼎實) delivering his last testament for radio broadcast before flying to die off Okinawa on June 6, 1945 (inset shows Kamikaze pilot 박동훈, 朴東薫 who died in March 1945)

In June 1945, as Imperial Japan was losing a brutal war against the United States, Korean support for the empire was rapidly unraveling. For years, the Japanese colonial regime had enforced State Shinto and mandatory emperor worship across Korea—forcing everyone, including schoolchildren, to bow toward the Imperial Palace in Tokyo every morning at 7 am in a ritual known as Kyūjō Yōhai (宮城遥拝). But it was becoming clear that no amount of coerced ritual could manufacture genuine Korean loyalty, which the authorities were going to need if the general Korean civilian populace was going to be mobilized into makeshift militias to fight Allied ground forces invading Korea by land.

Original caption: Corporal Kiyohara making an appeal to all Koreans for certain victory

So in desperation, Japan's colonial authorities turned to a new strategy: manufacturing Korean war heroes. Beginning in early 1945, the Keijō Nippo newspaper began idolizing young Korean kamikaze pilots who had died in suicide missions for the Empire. The first two were Matsui Hideo (Korean name In Jae-ung, died on November 29, 1944) and Lim Jang-su (died on December 7, 1944), whose cults of loyalty were pushed hard in January 1945. The Korean war heroes were not limited to deceased kamikaze pilots — one was Park Gwan-bin (박관빈, 朴官彬), a Private First Class in the Imperial Army who sacrificed himself destroying an Allied machine gun nest with an anti-tank explosive in Myanmar.

By June, two more Korean kamikaze pilots had become posthumous heroes: 21-year-old Kiyohara Teijitsu (Korean name Han Jeong-sil, died on June 6, 1945 off Okinawa), born in North Hamgyong province and Seoul resident, and 21-year-old Ōkawa Masaaki (Korean name Park Dong-hun, died on March 29, 1945 off Okinawa). But there was a new propaganda innovation this time—radio broadcasts of the pilots’ own voices, recorded just before they flew their final missions. These “last testaments,” delivered calmly into a microphone, were aired across Korea, creating the eerie effect of fallen heroes speaking from beyond the grave—not unlike the farewell videos of modern suicide bombers.

The film Love and Vows (愛と誓ひ), released in May 1945, fictionalized such a broadcast on vinyl, but Kiyohara’s and Ōkawa’s messages were very real, and played in Korean households and public spaces. His and Ōkawa’s broadcasts were accompanied by emotional newspaper reports on weeping families and patriotic villagers gathered around radios.

A Korean academic has written a (paywalled) paper on the Imperial propagandization of these Korean kamikaze pilots. Additionally, I used a detailed online roster of Kamikaze pilots, compiled by Japanese blogger, to verify their ages, death dates, and Korean names. 

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijō Nippo), June 13, 1945

The Voice of Corporal Kiyohara

I am convinced of the Imperial Nation’s certain victory, and although unworthy, I have received the Imperial command to attack as a member of the Heavenly Sword Unit. I am overwhelmed with tears of gratitude for this profound Imperial favor.

I am a man born on the Korean Peninsula. Though I am an inadequate person, I wish to express, as a token of my loyalty to the nation, the joy of having been born under the rule of the Empire and the benefit I have received from my training as an Imperial soldier—especially to the young people of the Peninsula who remain behind on the home front. I am still immature and unpolished, but if my words can serve in any way as a reference, I would be most happy.

The pure three-thousand-year stream of the Imperial Nation’s history also flows with the lifeblood of us on the Korean Peninsula. I firmly believe that this history is also our own. Ever since the distant Age of the Gods, the bond between Korea and Japan has never been merely that of so-called "next-door neighbors." Even then, our Peninsula was a child of His Majesty, a powerful and integral corner of the Imperial Nation.

Now, our homeland is at war with the United States and Britain. Conscription, long anticipated, has now been extended to us. Moreover, the path to participation in the Imperial Diet has also been opened. Many of our elders and seniors are already fighting. There is no greater honor than this. Now is the time for young men, burning with the purest patriotism, to step forward without hesitation, enter the military ranks, stand shoulder to shoulder with friends in the Japanese mainland, and fight the enemy.

Let us offer our blood and build a new, refreshing Greater East Asia. Let us not remain confined in a small shell, but rather take joy in serving our great parent (the Emperor), and pass on this legacy for a thousand generations. Even now, the solemn and majestic figure of the Chōsen Shrine comes vividly to mind, as do the people who continue to pay their respects there.

As I depart, I hold firm faith in those who will follow after me.
Young Korean people! Live righteously. Live strongly.
And protect the three-thousand-year history of the Imperial Nation.

This is my unwavering prayer.

Let Us Follow This Heroic Cry
Voices of Certain Victory from the Two Divine Falcons, Kiyohara and Ōkawa, Ring Across the Entire Peninsula

I am convinced of the Imperial Nation’s certain victory, and although unworthy, I have received the Imperial command to attack as a member of the Heavenly Sword Unit. I am overwhelmed with tears of gratitude for this profound Imperial favor.

Youthful voices, filled with fierce resolve, echoed through towns shrouded in the approaching dusk. At 8:05 p.m. on June 12th, the Seoul Central Broadcasting Station began airing recordings of the final words of two Korean-born Divine Falcons—Corporal Kiyohara Teijitsu (Han Jeong-sil 한정실, 韓鼎實) and Corporal Ōkawa Masaaki (Park Dong-hun 박동훈, 朴東薫).

In that moment, the Peninsula was enveloped in deep emotion. People across the land listened in solemn silence, determined not to miss a single word from the final voices of the Divine Falcons.

Ah, Corporals Kiyohara and Ōkawa—they left these words as a testament to the Peninsula, then boldly hurled themselves against enemy warships, offering their lives for the homeland in crisis.

Now, even the Peninsula is becoming a fierce battlefield. The enemy—those American devils—may invade the Peninsula at any time. Hearing the final cries of these Divine Falcons, who perished this spring as the vanguard of Korean loyalty, brought especially deep emotion to the Korean people.
The loyal spirits of these two Divine Falcons were seared deeply into the hearts of 26 million people, powerfully awakening a renewed fighting spirit.

I hold firm faith in those who will follow after me”.

Now, the Peninsula is burning with the resolve to answer this trust placed in them by the Divine Falcons, in the depths of profound emotion.

The Voice of Corporal Ōkawa

"As one of His Majesty’s people, I live with purpose. To have encountered such a time when Heaven and Earth flourish—what joy I feel."

Alone with my beloved aircraft, as I quietly surround myself with this song (Mitamiware), my heart is filled with an indescribable emotion.

Even now, I can already see before me the demonic American and British warships and B-29s. I cannot remain still. I am convinced that the spirits of those who came before us—our seniors, our fathers, and our elder sisters—are with us here, helping us.

Having come to this point, I shall demonstrate the skills forged by our instructors and assistant instructors through their blood and sweat, and I shall prove the strength of this spirit they instilled in us.

Even if our great battle achievements are never printed in the newspapers, I shall strike a blow—one aircraft, one warship. I will smash myself into that hateful enemy vessel and shatter my body into pieces.

To protect our history—let every person from the Peninsula become a special attack warrior and preserve this history for eternity. Know that this is the path we must take.

Let us all, swearing by the five articles of the Special Attack Code, raise the flag of the Rising Sun high and proud.

Father, Mother—please remain well. I deeply apologize for being such an unfilial son who has caused you many worries. But I believe that in light of this noble cause, you will forgive me. I go forward in high spirits.

To my younger brother and sister: Forgive your older brother for never having been able to care for you or do anything for you. Be strong. Live with pride and courage.

Lastly, for the first and only time in my life, I have composed a verse straight from my heart:

"Summoned to Yasukuni, this body—what regret can I have?"

Tear-Streaked Faces Lean Toward the Radio
Villagers Gather for the Broadcasts of the Two Corporals
A Stern Father Nods, a Sobbing Mother Weeps

As the soft crimson sun sank behind the western ridgeline, the lights suddenly flicked on. Gathered beside the altar were eleven members of the household, including the stern father Yeong-bin (영빈, 永彬), age 53, the mother Yeong-sook (영숙, 永淑), age 50, the second eldest brother Jeong-sun (정순, 鼎淳), and even the eldest brother’s grandchildren. They sat formally before the radio, holding their breath, awaiting the voice of their departed loved one.

Original caption: The Kiyohara family gathering together to listen to their son's broadcast.

That day, the home of the fallen Corporal Kiyohara Teijitsu (Jeong-sil) filled with villagers who had come to honor his noble sacrifice. They overflowed from inside the house into the yard, yearning for the sacred moment.

The second brother, Jeong-pil (정필, 鼎弼), age 27, had tested the radio repeatedly throughout the day, wearing a worried expression, fearing that static might interfere.

From across the quiet compound, the croaking of frogs echoed gently through the evening haze, accentuating the solemn stillness of the home.

At 8:05 PM, the solemn voice of the broadcaster announced the beginning of the program. The family members bowed in unison, placing both hands on the floor and lowering their heads.

I am convinced of the Imperial Nation’s certain victory, and although unworthy, I have received the Imperial command to attack as a member of the Heavenly Sword Unit. I am overwhelmed with tears of gratitude for this profound Imperial favor.

It was a strong, succinct voice, emblematic of the fierce fighting spirit of the late corporal.

"I am a man born on the Korean Peninsula. Though I am an inadequate person, I wish to express, as a token of my loyalty to the nation, the joy of having been born under the rule of the Empire and the benefit I have received from my training as an Imperial soldier—especially to the young people of the Peninsula who remain behind on the home front."

Villagers listening intently to the radio also bowed their heads deeply in silence. As the departed son spoke of the historical significance of Japanese-Korean unification and expressed joy in living as a subject of the Empire, his stern father, Yeong-bin, nodded repeatedly and closed his eyes in deep reflection. His mother, Yeong-sook, was already overcome with tears. She clenched her teeth to endure, but sobs escaped through her trembling lips. She was gripped by the memory of their final parting—when her son, Corporal Jeong-sil, had gently lifted her hand to his forehead in farewell and softly said, “Mother, you are still working so hard,” as he quietly stroked her worn, calloused hand. A single tear rolled down the father’s cheek and dropped silently into the hands folded on his lap. No one reached to wipe away their tears.

"As I depart, I hold firm faith in those who will follow after me. Young Korean people! Live righteously. Live strongly. And protect the three-thousand-year history of the Imperial Nation. This is my unwavering prayer."

The broadcast ended abruptly.

No one raised their head.

Following this, a poem was solemnly recited—a farewell verse left behind, beginning with "a young cherry tree was raised in the fields of the Peninsula..." The broadcast of Corporal Ōkawa’s message then began.

As the family listened, in tears, to the voice of the son and brother who had become one with the gods, the father, Yeong-bin, gently calmed them. He straightened his posture with dignity and listened attentively to Corporal Ōkawa’s broadcast.

Though brief, the broadcast was listened to by all with a longing and joy that surged from the depths of their hearts.

“He did it, he did it!” “He did such a great thing!”

As the program ended, voices of awe and admiration broke out from the crowd that had gathered.

Among them, a young man, trembling with emotion, cried out,

“Kiyohara-kun, you really did it. I will—I will do it too! I will follow after you!”

Tears streamed down his face, yet he made no attempt to wipe them away. He pledged before the spirit of the deceased.

Truly, that vow embodied the unshakable determination of the young men of the Peninsula’s home front, swearing to follow in the path of the shattered-yet-glorious Divine Falcons, Kiyohara and Ōkawa.

And in the softly swaying shadows of the incense smoke, the smiling portrait of the late Corporal Kiyohara Jeong-sil seemed to radiate with a quiet, resolute smile.

Photos: (top) Corporal Kiyohara making an appeal to all Koreans for certain victory; (bottom) The Kiyohara family gathering together to listen to their son's broadcast.

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijō Nippo), June 11, 1945

“From School to Battlefield”
A ‘Child of the Great Sky’ Who Bloomed in Death
The Home of the Brave, Corporal Kiyohara, Heavy with the Fragrance of Honor

Surrounded on three sides by lush green mountains, the home of the brave Divine Falcon Corporal Kiyohara Jeong-sil, heavy with the fragrance of valor, stands in 274 Jōdō-chō, Yeongdeungpo District, Seoul.

His stern father, Mr. Kiyohara Yeong-bin, had long served in government positions, and the family relocated many times across the country. Corporal Kiyohara, the third son, was born in Gyeongseong, North Hamgyong Province. After transferring between the Orang and Jubuk (주북, 朱北) Public Schools, he graduated from Bakcheon Public School, and then entered the Mining Department of Seoul Technical High School.

Corporal Kiyohara (top right), his father Yeong-bin (bottom left)

While in his third year, he was filled with a burning sense of loyalty and enrolled in the Imperial Army Youth Aviation School. There, he displayed a natural talent and, in [year and month redacted], received the Army Air Corps General's Prize, the highest honor for a student pilot.

Afterward, he trained at [base name redacted], and with great enthusiasm, deployed to the front. He joined the Heavenly Sword Unit and dove into the enemy formation, falling gloriously in battle, giving his life to the eternal cause.

Surviving family members include his stern father, Yeong-bin, his kind mother, Yeong-sook, his eldest brother Jeong-sun (age 32), who is a teacher at Ilsan Public School in Jangdan County, and his second eldest brother Jeong-pil (age 27), who works at the Seoul City Office. He also had two younger brothers and three sisters.

His father, Mr. Yeong-bin, now speaks of his late son while holding the pocket watch awarded for the Aviation General's Prize and a single cigarette bestowed upon the Heavenly Sword Unit members when it was formed.

He simply fulfilled his natural duty as a loyal subject of His Majesty the Emperor. That child was always saying, ‘I am a child of the great sky, a child of the great sky.’ Even though he knew the time and place of his death, he smiled brightly like a child and said that, when he returned, he wanted to make our house look nicer. When he graduated from the Youth Aviation School, his older brothers encouraged him to advance to the Air Officer Preparatory School or Aviation Officer School, but he firmly refused. He said that on the front lines, people were waiting—waiting for someone like him to arrive even a second sooner. Hearing him say that, we felt ashamed of ourselves.

Before departing from [base name redacted] after being assigned to the Heavenly Sword Unit, he stopped briefly at home. He asked me to write something on the Rising Sun flag. I wrote, ‘Special Attack Unit.’ He smiled and left. Now, I am simply overwhelmed with gratitude—he truly did well.

[Transcription]

京城日報 1945年6月13日

清原伍長の声

皇国の必勝を確信し不肖このたび天剣隊の一員として出陣の大命を拝し皇恩の深きに感泣する次第であります。

私は半島に生れた者であります。拙き身ながら皇国に生を享けた喜びと帝国軍人としての修養の一端を銃後の特に若い半島の青少年の方々に報国のつもりで申し上げます。未だ〇〇の未熟の者でありますが何かと参考になれば多幸と存じます。

皇国の清い三千年の流れには私達半島の血潮も咲いております。又一面この歴史は私達の歴史であると信じます。遠い神代からの御交りは俗にいう隣組ではなかったのであります。既にその時から私達の半島は陛下の赤子であり、皇国の力強き一角でありました。

今や私達の祖国は米英と戦っているのであります。私達にも待望の徴兵制が布かれ、また帝国議会参与の途も拓かれたではありませんか。多くの先輩達は戦っています。こんな光栄なことはありません。今こそ若き愛国の至誠に燃ゆる青少年諸君は何のよどみもなく軍門に入り内地の友と伍し敵と戦うべきです。

血潮を捧げ涼しい新たな大東亜を築くべきです。小さな殻に据われず大親に仕える喜びを味わい千載まで貽しましょう。斯くいういまでも森厳な朝鮮神宮の麗姿が、また引き続き参拝せられる人々が目に浮かんで来ます。征くにあたり後へつづく者を堅く信じます。半島の青少年よ、正しく強く生き皇国三千年の歴史を守らんことを祈って已みません。

この雄叫びに我ら続かん
清原・大河両神鷲・全半島に必勝の声

『皇国の必勝を確信し不肖このたび天剣隊の一員として出陣の大命を拝し、皇恩の深きに感泣する次第であります』

烈しい決意を秘めた若々しい声が夕闇迫る町々に響きわたった。十二日午後八時五分、半島が生んだ二神鷲清原鼎実、大河正明伍長の最後の言葉を伝える録音放送が京城中央放送局から開始されたのである。一瞬半島は深い感激に包まれ、神鷲最後の声を一言も聞き洩らすまいと静かに耳を澄ませるのだった。

ああ清原、大河両伍長はこの言葉を半島に遺して敢然敵艦艇に体当たり、危急の祖国に殉じたのだ。

今や半島も苛烈な戦場と化しつつある。敵米鬼はいつ半島に来冠せぬとも限らない。この秋半島尽忠の魁けと散った神鷲の最後の叫びを聞く半島の感激は一しお深く、両神鷲の忠魂は二千六百万の胸底にしっかと灼きつけられ新たな闘魂を逞しくよび起したのであった。

『後に続く者を堅く信じます』

半島はいま深い感動のうちにこの神鷲の信頼に応える決意に燃えきっているのだ。

大河伍長の声

御民われ生ける験しあり、天地の栄ゆる時に遇えらく思えば」独り愛機と共に静かにこの歌に包まれるとき、なんともいえない気持ちで胸一杯であります。もういまでも鬼畜米英の軍艦或はB29が目前にみえて来てじっとしておられません。必ずやここには先輩或は父姉等の精神が籠っていて我々を助けてくれると思います。こうなればきっときっと長い間教官、助教殿より血と汗をもってつくられた腕やこの精神でやってみせます。

大きな戦果が新聞に載らずとも一機一艦あの憎い艦にぶつかって身を粉々にしてみせます。歴史を護る半島人一人一人が特攻隊となってこの歴史を永遠に保ってくれ。それが我々の進べき道と思ってくれ。そうして五ヶ条の精神に誓って日の丸の旗を高く翻えそうではないか。

お父さん、お母さん。元気でいて下さい。いろいろ御心配かけた不孝者洵にすみません。しかしこの際の大義にはこのことをお許し下さることと思って元気で征きます。

弟よ、妹よ。兄は可愛がることも何も出来なかったことを許して、力強くそうして立派にやってくれ。最後に生れて初めての一句を心づくままに作ってみました。

靖国に召されるからだ如何せん。

耳傾ける涙の顔
両伍長の放送に集う村人たち
頷く厳父に嗚咽の母

薄紅の陽が西の山嶺に沈むとパッと電灯がともった。厳父永彬さん(五三)母掌永淑さん(五〇)を初め次兄の鼎淳さん以下長兄のお孫さんまで入れて一家十一人が祭壇の横に据えたラジオの前に端座し、固唾をのんで声の対面を待った。

この日神鷲清原鼎実伍長の録音放送を待つ生家には故伍長の遺烈を慕う村の人達が室内から庭前にまで溢れて聖なるひとときを待ちわびていた。

次兄の鼎弼さん(二七)は昼間から何度もラジオの試聴をして雑音が入らねばよいがと案じ顔だった。

烟の面を伝って蛙の声が尊い家の静寂を引き立たせている。

八時五分放送員の厳粛な声が放送開始を告げると家族は等しく両手をついて頭を垂れた。

『皇国の必勝を確信し不肖このたび天剣隊の一員として出陣の大命を拝し皇恩の深きに感泣する次第であります』

熾烈なる故伍長の闘魂を象徴するような力強く簡潔な語調である。

『私は半島に生れた者であります。拙き身ながら皇国に生を享けた喜びと帝国軍人としての修養の一端を銃後の特に若い半島の青少年の方々に報国のつもりで申し上げます』

じっとラジオに耳傾ける村の人達も深々と頭を垂れて聴き入った。内鮮一体の歴史的意義を解明し皇国の民としての喜びを語る我児の言葉に厳父の永彬さんはうんうんとうなる様に相槌を打ちながらじっと眼を閉じて聴き入った。女親の永淑さんはもうすっかり涙である。じっとこらえて喰いしばる歯の間から嗚咽が洩れる。最後の帰郷の時、母親の手をそっと押し頂いた鼎実伍長が『お母さんまだ苦労していますね』と脂気の失せた手を静かにさすってくれた在りし日の思出がぐんと胸を衝きあげてくるのだった。父親の頬を一筋すっとながれたものがボトリと膝に重ねた手の中に落ちた。誰一人涙を拭う者すらない。

『征くに当り後へ続く者を堅く堅く信じます。半島の青少年よ、正しく強く生き皇国三千年の歴史を守らんことを祈って止みません』ぶつりと終った。誰一人頭を上げようとはしない。続いて半島の野辺に育ちし若櫻...外一首の遺詠が荘重に朗誦され、大河伍長の録音放送に入った。

神と去りましし我児我兄の声に唯涙して聴き入る家族の者を父親の永彬さんは静かにたしなめると威儀を正して大河伍長の放送を傾聴した。

ほんの僅かな放送時間ではあったが、肚の底からこみあげてくる懐しさ、嬉しさで聴き入った人達である。

『やったやった』『よくやってくれたなあ』放送が終ると同時に集い寄った人群のなかから感嘆の声が巻き起った。なかに年若い青年は感激に身をふるわせ、『清原君やってくれたか。俺も俺もきっとやるぞ。あとから続くぞ』とあふれる涙を拭いもやらず霊前に誓う者もいた。まことこの誓いこそ玉と砕けし清原、大河両神鷲に誓う若き半島銃後の固い決意でもあるのだ。心なしかゆらぐ香煙の影に凛たる故清原鼎実伍長の遺影もまた莞爾とほほえんだことであろう。

写真=(上)全半島に必勝を呼びかける清原伍長、図内は大河伍長(下)我子の放送に一家揃って聴き入る清原家

京城日報 1945年6月11日

『進学より戦場へ』
散って咲いた『大空の子』
武勲一入薫る清原伍長の生家

三面を翠緑の山に囲まれて武勲一入薫る神鷲清原鼎実伍長の生家は京城府永登浦区上道町二七四だ。厳父永彬氏は多年官界に勤め、各地に転勤したが、同伍長は咸北鏡城にて三男として生れ、漁郎、朱北両国民学校に転学の後、博川国民学校を卒業。京城工業学校鉱山科に進学。三年在学中殉忠の意気に燃え、〇〇少年航空学校に入学。在学中は生まれながらの才能を発揮し〇年〇月少年飛行士の最高の栄誉たる陸軍航空総監賞を受け、その後〇〇基地にて訓練を積んでいたが、勇躍前線に出勤、天剣隊の一員に加り敵陣に突入散華し悠久の大義に生き抜いたのである。

遺家族は厳父永彬氏、慈母永淑さん、長兄徳淳(三二)=長湍郡一山国民学校訓導=次兄鼎弼(二七)=京城府庁勤務=がおり、その外二人の弟と三名の姉妹がいる。厳父永彬氏は航空監賞の懐中時計と天剣隊編成時に賜わった恩賜の煙草一本を前にして在りし日のわが子を思いながら語る。

天皇陛下の赤子として当然の本分を尽くしただけで、あの子は何時も『大空の子、大空の子』といっていましたが、死に場所も時も知っていながら帰って来たらもっと家を綺麗にすると子供のように朗らかに笑っていました。また少年航空学校を卒業した時に兄達が航空予科士官、航空士官へと進学を進めたが、あの子はきっぱり断り第一線では自分等を一瞬でも早く来るのを待っているといった時は却って私達が恥ずかしくなったのです。

天剣隊に編入され〇〇基地に出発する前に家に一寸よったが日の丸の旗に何か書いてくれといわれといわれたので『特攻隊』と書いてやったらにっこりと笑って征きました。ただただ今はよくやってくれたということで胸一杯です。

Sources:

Minor note: There is one place in the published articles where Jeong-sun (鼎淳) is mentioned as the second eldest brother (次兄), but this is probably a typographical error. Jeong-pil (鼎弼) is mentioned as the second eldest brother twice elsewhere in the articles.







Tuesday, July 8, 2025

Imperial Japanese and Korean collaborator elite partied in brothels and luxury restaurants while ordinary Koreans starved in wartime Seoul, early 1945

Below is a translation of an Imperial Japanese news article from the Keijō Nippo (京城日報), dated March 5, 1945, reporting on the café, bar, restaurant, and brothel scene in Seoul during wartime Japan's final months.

Original caption: "Shoes tightly packed into a restaurant’s entrance shoe rack"

As Japan’s war effort was collapsing and ordinary Koreans were suffering under brutal rationing and forced labor, this newspaper published what appears to be a belated and bitter acknowledgment of what most people already knew: the cafés, bars, restaurants, and brothels in Seoul were thriving—illegally and opulently—serving the colonial elite. Apparently, the elite customers would typically bring their own food and drinks for the establishment to prepare and serve, and book the entire place for themselves to ensure privacy. The customers would be served by waitresses who acted more like hostesses at hostess clubs, where beautifully dressed women would entertain guests with conversation and drinks and also play musical instruments like traditional changgo (장구) drums or shamisen.

The article complains about how kappō restaurants and so-called “public comfort” establishments had, in reality, reverted back to luxury entertainment venues. Senior waitresses (nakai) were earning five times their prewar income through enormous tips, openly catering to clients who could pay. These clients were powerful and well-connected Japanese people and Korean collaborators who still enjoyed privilege and access, even as bombs fell and food shortages worsened. Even the wartime attire regulations did not really apply to the elite - while ordinary Korean women were being punished for wearing chima skirts, elite Korean women could apparently still openly wear them within these exclusive establishments.

While common people faced deprivation and police surveillance, a privileged few continued to drink, be entertained, visit brothels in the Shinchō red light district, and enjoy “business meetings” in private rooms. This article, written in a moralizing tone presumably to shame the powerful clients as well as the proprietors of the establishments, inadvertently exposes the double standard and severe social inequality of wartime colonial society. 

This article also includes some interesting statistics breaking down the ethnicities of the proprietors of the different entertainment establishments. Apparently, a disproportionately large number of the proprietors of these establishments were ethnic Japanese, even though they made up only about 3% of the population of Korea at the time.

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijō Nippo) March 5, 1945
Sunday Paper Investigation
"The Proliferation of Business Meetings at Kappō Restaurants"
"Waitresses Driven by Tips"

It has now been exactly one year—five days ago—that high-class entertainment establishments were banished from the streets of the home front fighting for victory. This anniversary provides a fitting opportunity to reflect on how the year of wartime austerity unfolded and to subject the current state of affairs to renewed scrutiny as the ferocity of battle intensifies.

...◇...

On March 5, 1942, the government enforced the suspension of high-end restaurants in order to directly bolster military strength. As a result, 24 restaurants run by Japanese, 8 run by Koreans, and 6 run by Chinese in Seoul, along with 15 Japanese-run cafés and bars, 22 Korean-run ones, and 25 other entertainment venues such as billiard halls, were all ordered to change direction in the face of the enemy in the name of certain victory, without objection or exception.

In their place, a new type of establishment emerged: kappō restaurants (traditional Japanese eateries) aimed at providing comfort for the general public. Nine of these were opened by Japanese proprietors, and four by Koreans. Among them, two or three eventually converted into brothels (kashizashiki), but overall, high-class entertainment had ostensibly disappeared from the streets.

However, some individuals could not entirely purge the “enemy within the heart” lurking in society’s shadows, and ended up turning these public comfort-oriented kappō restaurants right back into the kind of exclusive fine dining establishments they were meant to replace. One welcome change brought about by emergency measures was the disappearance of the word “banquet” (enkai). In its place, however, “business meetings” (uchiawasekai) and “conferences” (kondankai) began to dominate these restaurants without any scheduling or moderation, to the point that full-house signs and being turned away at the door became commonplace.

Let us now examine this constant full-house status by comparing revenue statistics from the 1943 and 1944 fiscal years.

In fiscal year 1943 (prior to emergency measures), the combined revenue of 75 restaurants, cafés, and bars totaled 42,881,028 yen. In fiscal year 1944, despite having only 10 restaurants and a dozen or so eateries still operating, the total revenue still reached 36,897,302 yen and 16 sen (through March). The decline is a mere six million yen. When compared with the sharp decrease in the number of establishments, it becomes crystal clear how insufficient the public restraint on pleasure-seeking truly is. One cannot help but question the sincerity of these emergency measures. Has high-class entertainment really been relinquished? It makes one want to stand at the entrance of a kappō restaurant and ask the question aloud.

The fault lies with both the proprietors and the waitresses (nakai). The proprietors exploit wartime shortages by requiring customers to bring their own food and drink—if not, they are told, “Sorry, there is no sake,” with a clearly suggestive tone. As for the waitresses, the solemn vows they made last spring to change their ways have apparently vanished. Although they may wear monpe (work pants for women) instead of traditional chima or kimono, in some places even that is prohibited by the proprietors. Instead, the waitresses appear in garish makeup, attend guests at their tables, and in the most outrageous cases—though not beating changgo drums or playing shamisen—they sing and drink with customers. At that point, they are no longer barely-tolerated “carrying women” (hakobionna); they are simply hostesses. One is left with no choice but to cry out, “Is this really acceptable?”

These waitresses will not even glance at a ten or twenty yen tip. As a result, their service to customers is shockingly unfriendly and indifferent.

In light of this, it would be wise for remaining proprietors and waitresses to reconsider their stance in comparison to those who resolutely exited the industry. At this rate, one could say they are greedily making up for the income of their retired peers. We have already seen the revenue figures for proprietors, but what of the waitresses' earnings? While it varies from person to person, even the lowest earners are said to bring in 1,200 to 1,300 yen per month, and many exceed 2,000 yen. This is a remarkable income—easily five times what they used to make before. It is not wrong to earn money, but the approach should be one of sincere hospitality toward all customers.

Let us now consider the cafés that converted into eateries. These too become overcrowded by 5:30 p.m., with lines out the door. The proprietors charge exorbitantly, and the waitresses are unfriendly and lack even the slightest charm.

What is even more frustrating is the situation with the brothels (kashizashiki). In fiscal year 1943 (before emergency measures), they reported a revenue of 5,281,873 yen and 38 sen, but in fiscal year 1944 (through February), this skyrocketed to 7,813,880 yen and 91 sen—and this is only for the Shinchō district.

At this point, one is left speechless. Can anyone still claim that the night streets have exercised restraint? We must rethink this. The enemy is already closing in on our doorstep. It is fine to drink, but let us do so within reason, as befits citizens of a nation at war. Let today mark a sincere new beginning.

Now, as for the reality on the ground for business owners, it is—as seen above—far from commendable. But what about the customers? Half the blame for this situation lies with them. Among government offices, controlled corporations, and other circles, are there not some who sweat nervously when reflecting on this past year of supposed restraint?

[Photo caption: Shoes tightly packed into a restaurant’s entrance shoe rack]

[Transcription]

京城日報 1945年3月5日

日曜紙上査察
割烹に打合会氾濫
チップで動く仲居達

戦う銃後の街から高級享楽面を追放して早やきょう五日で満一年になった。そこで非常措置の精進一年が如何に送られたかを振り返って見、戦いの烈しさがその度を加えて来る今日の再批判の資としよう。

...◇...

昭和十七年三月五日政府は直接戦力の増強へ高級料理屋の休業を断行した。これで京城府内の料理屋内地人側二十四軒、半島人側八軒、中華人側六軒にカフェー、バー内地人側十五軒、半島人側二十二軒、その他玉突などの享楽場二十五軒が必勝目指して理窟抜きに敵前転進をした。そこで新たに店開きしたのが大衆の慰安場として登場した割烹店で内地人側が九軒に半島人側が四軒である。そのうちには貸座敷に転業したのも二、三軒はあるが、これで一応は高級享楽が街から返上された。

だが一部人には未だに片隅に巣くった『心の敵』を追放し切れなくて大衆の慰安場であるべき割烹店を昔に変らぬ高級料理店にして了った向がある。非常措置後嬉しいことには宴会という名は聞こえなくなった。その代り、打合会に懇談会がこの割烹店を占めて計画なしにひょっこり行っては満員の札止めで玄関払いが常識となった。ではこの連日満員の盛況振りを十八年度と十九年度の水揚高から見よう。

十八年度非常措置前料理屋、カフェー、バーをひっくるめた七五軒の水揚げが四千二百八十八万一千二十八円であるのに十九年度料理屋十軒、食堂十数軒の水揚げが三千六百八十九万七千三百二円十六銭(これは三月分迄)となっている。減少は僅か六百万円。しかも料理店の減っていることとにらみ合わせれば如何に享楽面の自粛が足らないのかはっきりと判る。これでは何の非常措置であり、何処に享楽返上をしているか。割烹店の玄関に立って訊いて見たくなる。

これは業者と仲居だが、業者は物資不足につけ込んで価も物も客の持込みでなければ『酒がありませんがね~』と暗に断り仲居達は昨年の春転進を誓った決意は何処へやらチマや和服の代りにモンペは履いたもののーいや中には店主が仲居にモンペを穿くことを禁じている店すらある。そのけばけばしいお化粧で席にはべり、甚だしいのはチャンゴではないが、三味線は引かぬが、酒を飲み唄っているのがある。これでは辛うじて残存を許された運び女ではなかろう。これでよいのかと叫びたくなるではないか。仲居のチップも十円や二十円じゃ鼻も向けず、自然客の応接に不親切極まるものがある。

これでは残存業者や仲居達は同業者が同輩が雄々しく転業したことを考え直してみるべきだ。現状からすれば転廃業したものの分まで稼ぐのだという感がないともいわれまい。業者は水揚げで判ったが、仲居の収入は?各人異なる訳だが、月に最小千二、三百円から二千円を越すのだという。大した新興所得で従前の五倍は優に稼ぐ訳だ。稼ぐのが悪いとはいわない。どの客にも一卒的な親切心で行こうというのである。

次はカフェー転向の食堂だがここも五時半になれば超満員の上列だ。業者はボル上女給は不親切で愛想もなんにもない。なお腹ただしいのは貸座敷街で措置前の十八年度は水揚げが五百二十八万一千八百七十三円三十八銭であったのが十九年度は(二月分迄)七百八十一万三千八百八十円九十一銭にはねあがっている(以上新町分のみの統計)。

これまで来ると、ただ呆然として言うこともない。これで夜の町は果して自粛せりと言える者があるだろうか。今一度ほんとに考えよう。敵はもう我々の身辺に迫っているのだ。飲むのもよいが戦う国民の分を過ぎないように心を引締めてきょうからは真に再出発しよう。

ところで業者の実態は以上の通りまことに香しくないが、客の方はどうか。業者のこのようにした罪の半ばは客の方にある。官庁、統制会社その他の方面に、自粛一年をふりかえって、そっとわきの下に汗する向きはありませんか【写真=料理屋の下駄箱にぎっしりならんだ靴】

Source: National Library of Korea, Digital Newspaper Archive

Tuesday, June 24, 2025

The film that tried to make Koreans see Imperial Japan as their “Omoni” (Mother): Inside the 1945 propaganda movie “Love and Vows" (愛と誓ひ, 사랑과맹세)

This is my review and analysis of a deeply unsettling Imperial Japanese propaganda film, Love and Vows (愛と誓ひ), which was screened in late May 1945 with the aim of reaching as many Koreans as possible in the final months of the war. The film was part of a larger effort to emotionally manipulate Koreans into sacrificing their lives for the Empire as Japan prepared for an Allied invasion. To ensure the message was driven home even to those who might have missed the screening, the authorities serialized a novelized version of the film’s story in the Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) newspaper — I have transcribed and translated that version below. The entire film can still be viewed today, with Korean subtitles at the Korean Film Archive, or without subtitles on YouTube (where it has been uploaded by @날보라-l9u, a Korean vlogger who expresses misguided, revisionist views sympathetic to Imperial Japan). I have provided some links to key scenes in the YouTube video for reference as timestamps.

Shiraishi Keiko with her biological son Toyoo (left) and her adopted Korean son Kim Young-ryong (right).

In the final year of World War II, as Imperial Japan braced for an expected U.S. invasion of both the Japanese mainland and the Korean peninsula, it embarked on an all-out propaganda campaign to prepare the Korean population for what was intended to be a suicidal last stand. The authorities planned to mobilize nearly every able-bodied man, woman, and child into citizen militias under direct Imperial Army command to resist the Allies to the death. To convince the Korean people—many of whom were deeply resentful of decades of exploitation, abuse, and humiliation under colonial rule—to sacrifice their lives for Imperial Japan, the state turned to cinema as a powerful tool to appeal to emotion and instill the required mindset.

One of the centerpiece works of this effort was the propaganda film Love and Vows (愛と誓ひ), directed by renowned filmmakers Imai Tadashi (今井正) and Choi In-gyu (崔寅奎). This film was produced with the full backing of the Imperial Navy and the Governor-General’s Office. It ran for 1 hour and 14 minutes and featured an all-star cast including Takada Minoru (高田稔) as Editor-in-Chief Shiraishi, Takehisa Chieko (竹久千恵子) as Mrs. Shiraishi, Dok Eun-gi (독은기, 獨銀麒) as Lieutenant Murai, Kim Shin-jae (김신재, 金信哉) as Murai’s widow, and Shimura Takashi (志村喬) as Murai’s father.

Love and Vows was first shown at two invitational test screenings (試写会) at the Bumingwan Hall (府民館) in Seoul on May 23, 1945. Beginning on May 24, it was screened across theaters throughout Korea until June 1. Special group discounts were offered to neighborhood Patriotic Groups (愛国班) presumably so their leaders could explain the film’s propaganda message to the audience and, where necessary, translate the dialogue for those Koreans who did not understand Japanese.

The film’s narrative centers on Kim Young-ryong (김영룡), a Korean orphan raised by a Japanese foster family who becomes inspired to volunteer for the Imperial Navy after learning about a heroic Korean kamikaze pilot, Lieutenant Murai. In the early scenes of the film, Murai flies his Kamikaze plane into a U.S. aircraft carrier and make the news headlines (6:24). Murai is a thinly fictionalized version of the real-life Korean kamikaze pilot Matsui Hideo or In Jae-ung (인재웅, 印在雄) who died on November 29, 1944. The orphan visits Murai’s school, playground, and home, absorbing reverence for the deceased hero, and listens solemnly to Murai’s recorded final words on a vinyl record. The story is crafted to venerate Murai as a god-like figure, but also to present him as an accessible role model so ordinary Koreans could imagine themselves becoming suicide fighters for Imperial Japan. Indeed, Korean Kamikaze heroes dominate the pages of Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) newspaper in 1945, and reverential, hagiographical accounts of their humble lives are published in exquisite detail to exalt them as role models for the Korean people. This is highly evocative of the personality cult dynamics seen in later North Korean propaganda. 

Stories of Korean orphans raised by adoptive Japanese parents were a common allegorical device in Imperial Japan’s colonial propaganda. These narratives framed Japan’s rule over Korea as the benevolent adoption of a troubled and wayward child — with Japan portrayed as the patient, magnanimous parent who takes in and raises the orphan despite his misbehavior or attempts to run away. Such imagery served to justify the brutal suppression of the Korean independence movement, casting it as the necessary discipline of a child who did not yet understand what was good for him. In Love and Vows, this theme is central: Young-ryong, the orphaned Korean boy, tries to run away, but the kindly Shiraishi forgives him, takes him back, and ultimately wins his loyalty by touching his heart. Shiraishi also does not shy away from using corporal punishment to beat Young-ryong for cowardice (1:05:29), as a way to shape him into an honorable Imperial soldier.

The plot also includes a speech to young Korean students by Shiraishi proclaiming that anyone, through effort and loyalty, can become as great as Murai. The film also features a Japanese teacher teaching an eager Korean student the motto 七生報国 (“even if I am reborn seven times, I will dedicate myself to serving my country each time”), attributed to medieval Japanese hero Kusunoki Masashige, and a quote from the Taiheiki: “Because it is the nature of battle, you should not necessarily judge the entire war by the outcome of a single skirmish (合戦の習にて候へば、一旦の勝負をば必しも不可被御覧),” encouraging Koreans to persevere despite Japan’s mounting defeats (21:14). 

The serialized short story version of the film that appeared in Keijo Nippo (京城日報) differs from the surviving film print in key ways. In the novel, the orphan’s indiscretion is getting drunk on whiskey, while in the surviving film, the orphan's indiscretion is sabotaging the fuel of a bus carrying Korean recruits. The emotional scene where the orphan cries out Omoni (어머니, “Mother”) in anguish at not being punished like the biological son—highlighting the message that Imperial Japan is a mother figure to Koreans—is absent in the surviving film, possibly because that copy was an early screen test that was not used for general release. This copy survived only because it was archived at the Tokyo National Film Center and later transferred to the Korean Film Archive before being uploaded to YouTube by @날보라-l9u. 

The authorities spared no expensive in ensuring this film would move Korean audiences. They enlisted top directors and actors and devoted scarce resources to create the special effects depicting the exploding U.S. aircraft carrier, to create a high-quality production capable of persuading Koreans on an emotional level to die for Imperial Japan. The story was calculated to instill loyalty, glorify self-sacrifice, and portray discipline from colonial masters as an expression of parental love—framing the empire as a caring Omoni for its Korean subjects. Coincidentally, North Korea similarly educates its citizens to call its Party their Omoni, promoting the song "당이여 나의 어머니시여 (The Party is My Mother)".

The film ends with Young-ryong holding hands with Shiraishi Keiko and Murai's widow Yeong-ja in a striking pose symbolizing Japanese-Korean unity (1:12:14), followed by a printed message, “Even today, divine falcons are sinking enemy ships to the bottom of the Pacific Ocean. Who will follow them and defeat the enemy? You will! You are going to do it! (神鷲は今日も敵を太平洋の底に沈めつつある。これに続いて敵を破るもの、それは君達だ。君達がやるのだ)” (1:13:56)

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) May 23, 1945
Long-Awaited Film “Love and Vows”
Preview Today at the Bumingwan Hall

Under the guidance of the Imperial Headquarters Navy Press Department and with the support of the Ministry of the Imperial Navy, the Korea Film Company began filming the naval motion picture Love and Vows on March 15. The production has now been completed. On the 23rd, two invitational preview screenings will be held at the Bumingwan Hall, one during the day and one at night.

This film depicts the spirit of the Korean Navy Volunteer Soldier System and dramatically portrays the true spirit of the Special Attack Units through an engaging story. It brims with warm humanity as unfortunate people help one another, aiming to revive the love that is apt to wither during wartime.

In summary: Kim Young-ryong (김영룡, 金英龍), a Korean orphan who lost his parents and siblings at a young age, was taken in by Editor-in-Chief Shiraishi of the Keijo Shimpo Newspaper out of compassion. While working as an office boy at the newspaper, he led a warm, peaceful life. Assigned to gather material for an article, he visited the home of Lieutenant Murai, a member of the Special Attack Forces. Together with Murai’s widow, Yeong-ja (영자, 英子), he walked to various places such as the classroom where Murai had studied (36:03), and the simple fields and riverbanks where Murai played as a boy. Upon returning, lost in quiet reflection, they found that a phonograph record had arrived, containing a recording of Murai’s voice on the night before his sortie (40:16).

Now the time has come. Just as you instructed, I will go with a smile,” rang out Murai’s bright voice (41:42). Overwhelmed by a solemn feeling, Young-ryong was frozen in place. Supported by the special affection shown by the widow Yeong-ja, Young-ryong spent a few days in a dreamlike state. Profoundly impressed, he returned home and wrote an excellent article, and with firm resolve Young-ryong followed in Murai’s footsteps by volunteering for the Navy. [Photo: A scene from Love and Vows]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) May 25-27, 1945
The Story of the Film “Love and Vows”

Love and Vows was completed recently and released to the public on the 24th. The film portrays the determination of Korean youth to serve at sea in response to the Naval Special Volunteer Soldier System.

Mr. Shiraishi (right) meeting Lieutenant Murai on the rooftop of the offices of Keijo Nippo Newspaper.

(1)

“The sky over Korea is as beautiful as ever, is it not?”

“Yes. But this beautiful sky connects to the great skies of the battlefield where you will go.”

Shiraishi Goro, Editor-in-Chief of the Keijo Shimpo Newspaper, said this with deep emotion as he gazed up at the clear sky after taking a rooftop photograph of Lieutenant Murai, the only son of his former mentor, who was leaving for the front. Suddenly noticing a boy peeking out from behind a wall, he exclaimed sharply, “Is that you, Young-ryong? Where have you been wandering?” and strode over (4:26).

This boy was Kim Young-ryong, an orphan whom Shiraishi had picked up from the backstreets of Jongno four years earlier and taken into his home. Young-ryong now worked as an office boy at the newspaper while attending night school, but his vagrant habits remained, and after a minor mistake a few days earlier, he had run away from home.

Hearing the circumstances, Lieutenant Murai said, “That will not do. You must not cause such worry. It is now your turn to be strong,” and clapped Young-ryong on the shoulder. He then asked Shiraishi, “How about taking one more photo of us together, for both our sakes?”

Shiraishi, sensing the Lieutenant’s firm resolve in his words, “That will not do ... it is now your turn to be strong,” raised his camera once more to capture the pair standing side by side (5:41).

Soon after, news was announced of the glorious deed of the Kamikaze Special Attack Unit, and among the names was Murai Shinichiro—Lieutenant Murai (7:29).

(2)

“Do you know the name of the boy standing next to my late husband?”

Yeong-ja is holding her son, to her left is the nanny, and Shiraishi Keiko is sitting

When Shiraishi's wife visited Murai’s widow, Yeong-ja, bringing the photograph of Lieutenant Murai taken at the newspaper office, she whispered this. Yeong-ja, who lost her parents during the Shanghai Incident and was separated from her five-year-old brother Kim Young-joo (김영주, 金英柱) when she was repatriated to Korea, felt the boy’s face somehow resembled that of her lost brother (19:36).

“This boy is an orphan we took in. His name is Kim Young-ryong.”

Mrs. Shiraishi replied sympathetically and promised to have her husband arrange for Young-ryong to visit.

Meanwhile, at Murai’s former school, Shiraishi addressed the students: “When you hear of divine falcons (kamikaze pilots), you may think of them as men born great, beyond your reach. But that is not so. If you become fine soldiers, you too can become divine falcons. Study well every day and strive to become fine soldiers.” Thus, Shiraishi appealed to their young hearts with words that were easy to understand, encouraging them to follow in Murai's footsteps (25:18).

That night, returning late from Murai’s home, Shiraishi's wife Keiko found their son Toyoo and Young-ryong in an uproar, having drunk whiskey mistaking it for wine.

“Why would you do such a thing while your mother was away?”

Mrs. Shiraishi, who arrived home earlier than her husband, scolded Toyoo harshly but did not scold Young-ryong. Expecting to be rebuked, Young-ryong felt all the more lonely for the lack of scolding, and, unable to bear the solitude of his longing for affection, retreated to his room. There, he quietly wept, calling out for his “mother.”

Later, when Mr. Shiraishi heard the story from his wife Keiko and peeked into Young-ryong’s room, he noticed the word “어머니” (Mother) scratched into the wall. He chided his wife, “Why did you not scold Young-ryong too? Look at this. He wanted to be scolded as well.”

Omoni is written in Hangul in the middle of the Japanese text.

(3)

“This is an excellent report of your visit. It is filled with sincerity.”

Yeong-ja proudly looks on at Young-ryong who is about to be deployed as an Imperial soldier.

Mr. Shiraishi praised Young-ryong’s account of his visit to the Murai home and promised to make him a trainee reporter. But unexpectedly, Young-ryong did not rejoice. Instead, he said he wanted to become a Navy man, not a reporter trainee, and asked to enter the Special Volunteer Soldier Training School (1:10:39).

A major reason for this change of heart was the sight of the Korean recruit, unable to board a bus due to a traffic accident, who said resolutely, “It is fine, I will run to the station,” and dashed off along the road (58:06), stirring Young-ryong’s young blood with this image of such courage and determination.

“I see, so you wish to become a Special Volunteer Soldier,” Shiraishi said with heartfelt joy and gave his enthusiastic encouragement.

Thus, in April, with the cherry blossoms in bloom, Young-ryong’s wish was fulfilled as he, accompanied by Yeong-ja and the Shiraishis, proudly set off for the Special Volunteer Soldier Training School (1:13:56).

(The End)

[Transcription]

京城日報 1945年5月23日

待望の『愛と誓い』
きょう府民館で試写会

大本営海軍報道部企画指導、海軍省後援のもとに朝鮮映画社は三月十五日から撮影を開始した海軍映画『愛と誓い』はこのほど製作完了。二十三日昼夜二回にわたり府民館で招待試写会を行う。

これは半島海軍志願兵制度の精神を現すと共に特攻精神の実相を劇的興味ある物語で綴ったもので不幸な人々が相助け合う温かい人情味を盛って戦時下ややもすれば荒みがちな愛情をよみがえらせるもの。

その梗概をみれば幼なくして父母兄弟を失った天涯の孤児金英龍は京城新報社白石編集局長の情けでその家に引取られ、新聞社の給仕を勤めつつ温かい生活を続けていたが、特別攻撃隊員村井少尉家へ社命で記事取材のため訪問。村井少尉の学んだ教室、遊んだ純朴な野原や川のほとりへと未亡人英子と共に歩いた。彼等が静かな物思いに耽りつつ帰って来ると、恰度村井少尉出撃前夜の声を録音した音盤が届けられていた。

『いよいよ出動です。かねてお訓しのように笑って出かけます』と音盤から明るい声が流れ出た。この厳粛な気持に英龍は身じろきも出来なかった。また英子未亡人の殊更な愛情も手伝って夢のような幾日かを過し、深い感銘をいだいて帰った英龍は素晴らしい記事を残して決然と村井少尉のあとに続き海軍に志願した。【写真=愛と誓いの一場面】

京城日報 1945年5月25日~27日

映画物語『愛と誓い』

海軍特別志願兵制度に応えて半島に沸きあがる青少年の海への決意を描く朝映の『愛と誓い』はこのほど完成。二十四日から封切られた。

(1)

『相変らず、朝鮮の空は美しいですね』

『そうだ。でもこの美しい空は、君の征く戦場の大空へ、つながっているのだよ』

京城新報社の編輯局長白石五郎は、出征にあたって、社へ別れに来た恩師の一人息子村井少尉の写真を屋上で撮り了ると、沁々とした面持で、澄みきった大空を仰いだが、フト向こうの壁のところから、チラッと覗いた一人の少年の姿を目ざとく見付けると、『英龍じゃないか。何処をうろついていたのだ』と、劇しい言葉を浴びせて、近寄って行った。

この少年は、四年まえ鐘路の裏街から白石が拾ってきて、ずっと自分の家で面倒を見てやっている金英龍という孤児で、いまは社の給仕をさせながら夜学へ通わせているのだが、未だに放浪癖が抜けずもう二三日まえから、一寸した失策から家を飛び出しているのであった。村井少尉は、白石局長からその事情をきくと、『いかん、そんな心配をかけるものではない。これからは君たちがしっかりする番だよ』と言って、英龍の肩を叩くと、『どうです、二人の分も一つ、もう一枚とって下さいませんか』と白石局長へ頼んだ。

白石は『いかん、これからは君たちが、しっかりする番だ』という村井少尉の言葉に、なにか劇しい少尉の決意を予感しながら、再びならび立った二人へカメラを向けた。

果たせるかな。それから間もなく神風特別攻撃隊〇〇隊の壮挙が発表されたが、その中に村井信一郎-村井少尉の名前があった。

(2)

『この良人の傍に立っている子供の名前を、御存じでしょうか』

村井少尉が社へ訪ねてきたときにとった写真を持って、白石夫妻が恩師の宅を訪問すると、少尉の未亡人へささやいた。英子は、上海事変のとき両親を失い、朝鮮へ引き揚げるとき、五つになっていた弟の金英柱ともはぐれて仕舞ったのだが、その弟の幼顔に何処かその少年の顔は、似ているというのである。

『この子供は、私の家に引取っている孤児ではありませんか。金英龍といいますの』

白石夫人は、気の毒そうにそう言うと、それでも一度良人へ頼んで、英龍を訪ねさせようと、約束するのであった。

その頃、白石は恩師の学校で、全校生徒を集めて、『神鷲というと、あなた達は自分の手の届かないような、大変生れつきから偉かった人のように考えるでしょうが、決してそうではありません。立派な軍人になれれば、きっと神鷲になれるのです。あなた達だって、毎日をよく勉強して早く立派な軍人になって下さい』と、判り易い言葉で、烈々と村井少尉のあとへ続く、その童心へ呼びかけていた。

しかしその夜、遅く村井家から白石夫妻が帰ってみると、子供の豊夫と英龍は葡萄酒と間違えてウィスキーを飲み大変な騒ぎをしているところであった。

『お母さんの留守に、なぜこんな真似をするのです』

白石より先に帰ってきた夫人の桂子は、激しく豊夫を叱ったが、英龍は叱らなかった。当然叱られることを覚悟していた英龍は、かえって叱られないことが淋しく、愛情の孤独に耐えかねて、自分の部屋へ悄然と戻ると、声を忍ばせて泣きながら、お母さんと呼びつづけるのであった。

後から帰宅した白石は、桂子から事情をきいて、眠っている英龍の部屋を覗いたが、共入口の壁にかかれている어머니(オモニ)という爪文字を見ると、なぜ英龍も、叱ってやらなかったのだ、之を見るがいい、きっと英龍も叱られたかったのだと、桂子をなじった。

(3)

『これは立派な訪問記だ。君の真心がこもっている』

金英龍に村井家を訪問させた白石は英龍の書いてきたその訪問記を見て、非常に激賞すると、君も今度から記者見習いにしてやるといった。しかし英龍は意外にも、それを喜ばなかった。そうして自分は、記者見習よりも、海軍軍人になりたいから、特別志願兵訓練所へ入所したいと言った。

村井家を訪問した英龍の心の中に、大きな変化を起させた一つの原因は村井家から帰る日、自動車事故のためにバスに乗れなくなった半島の入営壮丁が、いいです駅まで走りますと、みんなの心配顔へ、決然として言うと、一散にバス道路を駅へかけて行ったその雄々しい姿であった。あの雄々しさ、あの毅然たる姿、それを思いうかべると、英龍の若い全身の血は沸り立つのであった。

『そうか、特別志願兵になるか』白井は心からそれを喜ぶと、大いに激励した。

やがて桜咲く四月、念願の叶った英龍は、英子や白石夫妻に送られて勇躍〇〇特別志願兵訓練所へ急ぐのであった。(了)

Source: National Library of Korea, Digital Newspaper Archive

External blog links covering "Love and Vows":

Link to the YouTube video of the entire film (no subtitles): https://youtu.be/AsmQjtVSUyA






Sunday, June 15, 2025

In 1945, Imperial Japan trained almost every able-bodied Korean man, woman, and child to stab Americans to death with bamboo spears in suicide combat militias under direct Imperial Army command

Let's look at three articles from Keijo Nippo (the official Japanese colonial newspaper in Korea) published in April through August 1945 which give a chilling window into how Imperial Japan prepared the Korean population for what they saw as an inevitable final battle on the Korean Peninsula. Almost every Japanese and Korean man, woman, and even child was expected to receive training in bamboo spear techniques and was subjected to intense anti-American propaganda designed to mentally prepare them to fight and kill Allied soldiers without hesitation. The message was clear: they were to sacrifice their lives if necessary, but not before taking at least one Allied soldier with them in the process.

Korean civilians training in bamboo spears at Sunrin Commercial School in Seoul

The first article, published on April 28, 1945, describes a scene at Sunrin Commercial School in Seoul where civilians — many likely conscripted against their will — are shown training with bamboo spears under cherry blossoms. Similar drills were almost certainly taking place all over Korea as well as mainland Japan as the authorities sought to raise a Volunteer Corps of civilians, organized into improvised militias directly controlled by the Imperial Army. The hierarchical command structure of the Volunteer Corps would later be finalized in July 1945 with great fanfare by the top brass of the Imperial Army and the Governor-General's Office. This system was much like the Volkssturm militias of Nazi Germany in its final months. 

The second article, published on June 13, 1945, explains how the Volunteer Corps were also tasked with providing logistical support (intelligence, transportation, communications) to the Imperial Army. But it emphasizes that these transport units were expected to convert into combat units at a moment’s notice, and become farm workers when needed. The article even gives an example of how an activation order might be announced by radio. Those judged to have special aptitude would be organized into guerrilla units to carry out guerrilla warfare.

The third article, published on August 4, 1945, reinforces this point: even transport volunteers driving ox-and-horse carts were expected to instantly mobilize into combat units.

Elsewhere in the same newspaper in June and July 1945, there were instructions on how to fight tanks with hand grenades, how to dig trenches for combat, and other military tactics. This dissemination of military knowledge to the general population was intended to create a mass resistance against Allied invasion. Yet ironically, it had an unforeseen consequence. When Japan surrendered on August 15, 1945, this same population — already mentally prepared for armed struggle — rose up in various armed uprisings, as seen in incidents across Korea in the immediate post-war period. This outcome reveals a cognitive blind spot of the Japanese military leadership: they failed to consider what would happen after their defeat, and as a result, they unwittingly planted the seeds of armed resistance against themselves.

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) April 28, 1945

A Bamboo Spear That Flashes in an Instant to Defend the Divine Land of Japan
The Sword of Wrath That Strikes to Kill
Under the Cherry Blossoms – Homeland Defense Troops Train with Bamboo Spears

In this campaign of tremendous bloodshed, the vile enemy, though distressed by the depletion of its forces, continues to press on toward a final decisive battle. That indomitable will to fight is none other than the treacherous ambition to trample our homeland into complete ruin.

Anticipating an enemy landing on the mainland, the hundred million citizens must literally arm themselves to the last man and woman and protect this Imperial land, unsullied by defilement. Each of us, man or woman, must with certainty kill at least one enemy, stop the breath of the foe, and secure final victory.

Those without weapons shall take up bamboo spears and fight to the bitter end. Let us wield the deadly bamboo spear and fall together with the enemy in mutual destruction. The call for universal armament of our hundred million must not remain empty words.

Here, on the grounds of Sunrin Commercial School, the gentle spring breeze is broken daily by the fierce bamboo spear training of the Homeland Defense Troops.

Should the filthy barbarians invade our land, we shall pierce through the chests of the Americans with a single thrust. Burning with this resolute fighting spirit, about two hundred leaders of the Homeland Defense Troops and various government offices and companies have, since the 26th, gathered under the fully blooming cherry blossoms for three days of instruction in bayonet techniques and bamboo spear training. From morning till evening, they continue intense training under the guidance of their instructors, starting with basic movements.

This is not training for the sake of training. Even the dummy targets used for thrusting practice are unlike those of the past. They represent the targets of those who, aflame with righteous anger, stand in defense of the Imperial land unto death.

The day will surely come when these bamboo spears will be dyed with the blood of our hated enemies. Within the flash of each thrust surges the very soul of our divine nation’s defense.

If there is no bamboo, wood will do. Thrust, thrust, and thrust again — that is the bamboo spear spirit. We asked Second Lieutenant Kawabata, the instructor, to speak:

“Until now, training of this type has been nothing but talk, and there has been no true effort to practice it. People do not even know how to handle wooden rifles, yet they are told to arm themselves completely — that can no longer be allowed. We must abandon the attitude of relying on reinforcements to come. Instead, every single citizen must cultivate their own actual fighting ability. In preparation for emergency, it is absolutely essential to master the handling of weapons that can replace the bayonet when fighting the enemy — that is, the bamboo spear. Doing so is nothing other than the true expression of the spirit to defend the Imperial land to the end.

If there is no bamboo, wood will do. The standard length is from 1 meter 70 centimeters to about 2 meters. The method of handling is no different from bayonet technique. Let us wield our bamboo spears, become a national corps of attackers, and burn with a fierce determination to drive out and slay every last one of the foul invaders.

[Photo: Training of the Homeland Defense Troops with spears]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) June 13, 1945

What Are the National Volunteer Combat Units?
Divided by Workplace and Region
No Ranks Except for the Commander

The National Volunteer Military Service Act, submitted to the 87th Wartime Diet, passed both the House of Peers and the House of Representatives and has been enacted. This military service law provides the legal foundation for the National Volunteer Corps, which has already been organized nationwide, to be transformed into combat units when the time comes. With the enactment of this military service law, the entire population will greet the enemy landing on the homeland, and all will become soldiers, directly or indirectly joining the frontlines of exterminating the enemy. Thus, the unprecedented realization of complete and thorough universal conscription has been achieved.

The specific details of this military service law will be announced as Imperial ordinances as needed and promptly implemented. The general outline, as clarified through Diet debates, is as follows:

Relationship with the Volunteer Corps:
When the National Volunteer Corps is transformed into combat units, they will be mobilized under this military service law and become volunteer soldiers.

Timing, order, and method of forming combat units:
The order to form combat units will be issued by army district commanders with permission from the Army and Navy Ministers. At present, it is expected that transportation and communication institutions will be among the first to receive immediate orders to form such units. Their employees will become volunteer soldiers upon the issuance of the order, and their peacetime organizational structures will remain intact as combat units. However, their actual operations will be under the direction and supervision of the relevant minister in charge.

Similarly, important factories that are likely to become targets of air raids will also be ordered to form combat units. In these cases, the existing factory organization will become the combat unit, with the company president or factory manager serving as the commander. This is not an official government position.

The above pertains to workplace-based volunteer units that will soon be implemented. As for regional units, in areas where enemy invasion is deemed imminent, orders for formation will be issued individually as needed. For example, in cases where air raids intensify and suspicion of an invasion grows stronger, such orders will be given.

Method of mobilization:
The simplest possible method will be used, primarily verbal orders. For example, a radio broadcast might declare, “The National Volunteer Corps of XX Prefecture, XX Town shall be transformed into combat units,” thereby ordering the formation. In other words, this formation order itself constitutes the call-up, so no written call-up notices will be issued.

Demobilization:
Demobilization will similarly be communicated via radio or verbal announcements.

Organizational structure:
Combat units will be organized at the city, town, village, and major workplace level. These entities must maintain a roster of all affiliated volunteer members.

Status and duties of combat unit members:
The combat units are divided into two categories — workplace-based and regional — but their status is the same. Except for the commander, there are no ranks among the volunteer soldiers. The commander is appointed by the military. In essence, everyone is treated as a private soldier.

The duties differ depending on the reason for formation, but they primarily involve rear-area duties for the military: logistics, intelligence, communications, maintenance of airfields and roads, and so on. Workplace-based production combat units will continue production activities until the very end. During busy agricultural seasons, units will be suitably formed to assist in farming villages, becoming food production combat units as needed. Thus, combat units may also be mobilized as labor reinforcements.

Training:
Training of combat unit members will vary depending on their assigned duties. Some will be specially selected to form assault or raiding units, engaging in bold guerrilla warfare alongside Imperial army soldiers. Since the assigned duties — such as maintaining roads, airfields, transport, and communications — are generally predetermined, training will focus only on what is necessary for these tasks.

In the case of production (factories), production itself is regarded as a combat mission, so there is no need for bamboo spear training. The military's emphasis for training is on spiritual education. The principle is to cultivate a single, elite capability for the assigned task. There is no need for unnecessary training in various areas — the key is to perform the assigned task excellently. Training time should be minimized and used efficiently. Particularly emphasized is the development of integrated training methods where training and production are one and the same.

Command structure:
This will be clarified by imperial ordinance, but apart from railways and communications, regional combat units will be organized by town or village, and a joint combat unit will be established under military control. Command authority lies with the military commander of the relevant area.

Age and other requirements:
Because combat units require mental and physical strength, the upper age limits have been lowered by five years from the Volunteer Corps limits: men up to 60 years old, women up to 40 years old. Previously, the limits were men up to 65 years old, women up to 45 years old. However, those outside these age limits may join as volunteers.

Exemptions:
Those already conscripted, enlisted, ill, pregnant women, women who have given birth, their protective personnel, and others deemed irreplaceable by the regiment district commander will be exempt. In short, all who are capable of working will become combat unit members.

Rewards and punishments:
Combat unit members are treated as soldiers under military discipline. They are eligible for decorations just like regular soldiers, including the Order of the Golden Kite, and will be enshrined at Yasukuni Shrine. Punishments will be applied with leniency, without referral to military tribunals under the Army and Navy Acts.

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) August 4, 1945

Robust Independent Volunteer Corps
Transport Units Are Formed
Motor Vehicle and Ox-and-Horse Cart Units to Set Out Soon

The National Volunteer Corps on the Korean Peninsula, preparing heroically for the decisive battle on the homeland, is advancing boldly. In the event of an emergency, overland transport will be of utmost importance. In particular, for small-scale transport operations such as motor vehicles and ox-and-horse carts, excluding Central Region Korean Railway, the Governor-General’s Office has decided to form National Volunteer Transport Units to establish an active operational posture under perfect, unbroken control.

These transport units will be divided into two parts: the National Volunteer Motor Vehicle Unit and the National Volunteer Small Transport Unit composed of ox-and-horse carts. The motor vehicle unit will have its headquarters at the Motor Vehicle Control Company, with battalions assigned to each province.

The small transport unit will have headquarters in each province, battalions at each police station, companies at each police outpost, and beneath them, platoons and squads. The members of these units will not be incorporated into workplace-based or regional National Volunteer Corps units.

These will function as independent, cooperative volunteer units that, upon the issuance of an order, can be converted into combat units.

Regarding the management of these most vital transport units, the Governor-General’s Office convened transport and security section chiefs from each province on the fourth and fifth of this month to hold planning and coordination meetings for operational command.

[Transcription]

京城日報 1945年4月28日

一瞬閃く神州護持の竹槍
怒る必刺の剣
桜花の下・郷軍竹槍訓練

夥しい出血作戦に醜敵は兵力の損耗に焦慮しながらも最後の決戦を挑みつづける。その侮り難き戦意は飽くまでも本土を蹂躙しつくそうとする不逞な野望に他ならぬ。

本土上陸を予測して一億は文字通り総武装し汚されたことなき皇土を護持、男も女も必ずや一人一殺をもって敵の息の根を止め最後の勝利を獲得せねばならぬ。

武器なきものは竹槍をとっても戦い抜こう。必殺の竹槍をふるって敵と刺し違えようではないか。

一億皆武装も口先だけではいけない。ここ善隣商業学校校内では春風駘蕩の麗らかさを破って毎日烈しい郷軍の竹槍訓練が行われている。

一たび醜夷わが国土に侵犯せばこの一突をもってメリケンの胸板を貫かんの満々たる闘魂に燃ゆる郷軍はじめ各官衙会社の指導者二百名達は二十六日から三日間に亘ってらんまんの桜花の下で銃剣道と竹槍訓練の講習に参加し、終日、教官の指導のもとに基本動作から火の出るような訓練を続けている。

訓練のための訓練ではない。刺突する仮標もまたこれまでの仮標とは違う。怒りに燃えた皇土死守の姿である。

この竹槍がやがて怨敵の血で染まる時が来るであろう。されば一閃する刺突の中に神州護持の魂魄が奔流するのだ。竹槍がなくば木でもよい。突いて突いて突きまくる竹槍精神を、教官川畑少尉に語って貰った。

『今までこの種の訓練は口ばかりであり、実際にやるということがなかったようだ。木銃の持ち方も知らなくて総武装せよなどというのはもう今ではいけない。待つあるを恃むの戦闘態勢から国民の一人一人が残らず実力を培養して置くことである。有事の際を覚し敵と戦う銃剣に代わるべき武器、即ち竹槍などの操方は絶対に身につけて置くことが真剣に皇土を護り抜く精神の発露に他ならない。竹がなくば木でもよい。長さは一米七十糎から二米位が標準である。その操方は銃剣道と変りない。竹槍をふるい、国民総斬込隊となって醜賊を一人残らず撃ち攘う烈々の気概に燃えねばならぬ』

【写真=郷軍の槍訓練】

京城日報 1945年6月13日

国民義勇戦闘隊とは
職域と地域に区分
隊長を除き階級なし

第八十七敵前議会に提出された国民義勇兵役法案は貴衆両院を通過成立した。この兵役法は全国的にほぼ組織を終った国民義勇隊が戦闘隊となるべき時の法的根拠をなすもので、全国民はこの兵役法の制定によって敵を本土に邀え、悉くが一兵卒となって直接間接滅敵の第一線に参加することになり、史上その比を見ない完全かつ徹底した国民皆兵の姿がここに実現するに至った。この兵役法の具体的諸点は今後その都度勅令によって公示され、速やかに実施されるが、議会において論議され明かとなった諸点を通じその大体の輪郭を示せば次の通りである。

義勇隊との関係:国民義勇隊が戦闘隊に転移すればこの兵役法によって召集され義勇兵となる。

戦闘隊編成の時期、順序、方法:戦闘隊に編成される命令は陸海軍大臣の許可を得て各軍管区司令官が下令する。現在のところ直ちに編成下令されるものと予想されるものには運輸、通信機関がある。これらの従業員は下令次第全部義勇兵となり、平時の組織そのままで戦闘隊となるわけである。しかし実際の業務はその斯管大臣の指揮監督を受くることとなる。これについて編成下令されるものに空襲目標となる重要工場がある。この場合も工場の組織そのままが戦闘隊となる。社長、工場長が隊長となり指揮することとなるが、これは官職ではない。

以上は近く実施される職域義勇隊の場合であるが、地域的には敵の侵攻間近しと判断される地区について個々に必要に応じて編成下令が下ることになっている。たとえば空襲が激化し、その侵攻の疑い濃厚となった場合など下令せられることとなろう。召集の方法は最も簡易を選び口頭でやることを原則としている。たとえばラジオ放送を利用して『〇〇県〇〇町国民義勇隊は戦闘隊に転移すべし』と下令し、編成を命ずる。すなわち、この編成下令が義勇召集を意味するものであるから召集令状は出さないことになっている。

解除の場合もまた同様ラジオや口頭などで伝達される。戦闘隊の軍位は市、町、村および主要職域団体でこれらの機関では所属義勇隊員の連名簿を作って置くことが必要である。

戦闘隊員の身分、任務、戦闘隊は以下の如く職域、地域と二つに区分されているが、その身分は同じである。義勇兵には隊長を除き階級はない。隊長は軍が命ずる。すなわち全部が一兵卒というわけである。

任務は編成の理由によって異なって来るが、主として軍の後方勤務、兵站、情報、連絡、飛行場、道路の補修等に従事する。また職域で最後まで生産に邁進する生産戦闘隊は農繁期に適当に編成されて農村に出動する。食糧増産戦闘隊となることもある。このように戦闘隊は場合により労務の補充として召集されることもあり得るのである。

戦闘隊の訓練:戦闘隊員の訓練は与えられた任務により色々違って来るが、中には特に選ばれて斬込み挺身隊となり、皇軍将兵と共に果敢なゲリラ戦を専門にやるものもあるが、道路、飛行場の補修輸送、連絡等と平素から大体与えられる任務がきまっているから訓練にはそれに必要な訓練をやる。

生産(工場):戦闘隊は生産それ自体が戦闘任務であるから竹槍訓練等は勿論やる必要もない。軍の予定している訓練の重点は精神教育であり、特に与えられる任務に対し単一精鋭なることを原則としている。従ってあれもこれもやる必要はない。つまり与えられた一つの任務を立派にやればよい。訓練には余計な時間をさかず、出来るだけ短い時間を活用してやる。特に訓練即生産ともいうべき生産と一体的な訓練方法を工夫することが強調されている。

命令系統構成:これは勅令で明かにされるが鉄道、通信は別として地区戦闘隊は町村を単位とし軍に聯合戦闘隊を設ける。これらの指揮権は当該地区の軍司令官にある。

年齢其の他:戦闘隊は気力体力を要するので年齢は義勇隊の男六十五歳、女四十五歳から各五歳切り下げられ、男六十、女四十なでと定められている。しかして年齢外のものでも志願によって戦闘隊に加わることが出来る。除外例としては応召、入営者、病人、妊産婦その保護要員及びその他聯隊区司令官が余人を以て換えられないと認めるものであるが、要するに働けるものの総てが戦闘隊員になるわけである。

賞罰:戦闘隊員は義勇兵であるから軍紀の下に軍人として待遇される。行賞は勿論一般軍人と同じで金鵄勲章も授賜され、靖国神社に祀られる。罰は陸海軍法会議に附することなく緩和して適用されることとなっている。

京城日報 1945年8月4日

逞し独立義勇隊
輸送隊を編成
自動車、牛馬者両隊近く発進

本土決戦に備える半島の国民義勇隊は勇壮に進発しているが、有事の場合最も重要である陸上輸送、就中鮮鉄を除いた自動車、牛馬車等の小運送部門に対し、総督府は国民義勇輸送隊を編成し、一糸紊れざる統制下に活発なる活動態勢を整備することになった。

此輸送隊は国民義勇自動車隊と牛馬車を打って一丸とする国民義勇小運搬隊に分れ自動車隊は自動車統制会社に本部を置き各道に大隊をおくことになっている。小運搬隊は各道に本部、各警察署に大隊、駐在所に中隊を置き、其下に小隊、分隊を置き、これらの隊員は職域、地域の義勇隊には編入されない。

単独協力なる義勇隊とし一度命下れば戦闘隊に切り替えられるものである。此最も重要なる輸送隊の運営に付、総督府は四、五の両日各道輸送保安課長を召集、運営指揮の打合せを行う。

Source: National Library of Korea, Digital Newspaper Archive

See also: (June 17, 1945 Q and A regarding mass mobilization): https://tpjv86b.blogspot.com/2023/10/in-june-1945-imperial-japan-announced.html

21-year-old Kamikaze pilot Han Jeong-sil (한정실, 韓鼎實) delivering his last testament for radio broadcast before flying to die off Okinawa on June 6, 1945 (inset shows Kamikaze pilot 박동훈, 朴東薫 who died in March 1945)

In June 1945, as Imperial Japan was losing a brutal war against the United States, Korean support for the empire was rapidly unraveling. For...