‘Sweaters are tools of suicide’: Koreans were forced to follow Dr. Sonomura, a radical Japanese nudist fitness guru, and practice winter ‘naked calisthenics’ to save fuel and fabric for the Imperial Japanese war effort in 1945

It was January 1945, in the final desperate months of World War II. As fuel and fabric shortages deepened, the Japanese colonial regime in Korea began promoting the teachings of Dr. Sonomura, also known as the Naked Teacher—a radical nudist physician affiliated with the Niko-Niko (Smiley) Naked Corps, a fringe health cult boasting around 40,000 members at the time.

Dr. Sonomura carrying a banner which says "Light clothing is the secret to health (Niko-Niko Naked Corps)" and wears a shoulder sash which says "Bless the nation with health".

Calling sweaters “tools of suicide,” Dr. Sonomura preached that stripping outside completely naked once a day—even in subzero temperatures—and performing his “naked calisthenics” before bed would prevent all disease, toughen the body, and eliminate the need for heating or winter clothing. His philosophy was extreme, but the regime saw potential: less clothing meant fewer materials needed, less heating meant less fuel burned.

A state-run propaganda newspaper, Keijō Nippo, published a full series of articles introducing Sonomura’s methods to the Korean public—complete with workout instructions and patriotic messaging. But backlash appears to have followed. In a follow-up interview with a professor at Seoul Imperial University, Dr. Sonomura walks back some of his more extreme claims. No, you do not need to be fully nude right away. Yes, you can wear light clothing to let the skin “breathe.” Yes, doing these exercises in minus 30-degree weather is too extreme. 

By that point, however, the direction was clear. The regime had already mandated daily Shinto prayers at 7 a.m. and a moment of silence at noon. From the perspective of the regime, adding evening “naked calisthenics” to this list—under the pretense of cultivating physical strength alongside spiritual purity—was a natural progression to further "train" the Korean people.

Dr. Sonomura was forgotten in postwar Japan, but the founder of the Niko-Niko Naked Corps, Rakan Oikawa (1901–1988), continued promoting the same “naked health” philosophy across Japanese schools well into the postwar decades. He became a familiar sight (see photo of Oikawa as elderly man doing splits): a funny eccentric old man marching across Japan in shorts, shirtless, waving a banner that read, “Light clothing is the secret to health.” His influence lingers in certain corners of Japanese culture—even going viral in recent years when a video surfaced of Japanese kindergartners running around shirtless.

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) January 8, 1945

Make Your Whole Body Your Face
Naked Journey from Edo to Seoul
Preaching the Spirit of Nudity for Certain Victory
Meet Dr. Sonomura

Despite the cold that persists even under thick overcoats in Seoul these days, a completely naked man has suddenly appeared. Wearing only short trousers, with his upper body entirely bare, barefoot in straw sandals, and carrying a large banner boldly proclaiming, “Light clothing is the secret to health,” he walks on without a care for the cold. While astonished onlookers watch him in disbelief, he strides proudly down the street as if to say, “What are you bundled up for? Is Seoul really that chilly?”

This man is Dr. Kenchōsai Sonomura, Director-General of the Niko-Niko (Smiley) Naked Corps, Kyūshū Headquarters, based in Tokyo.

“To win this war, we must strip ourselves completely naked not only in spirit but also in body,” says Dr. Sonomura, who set off naked from Nihonbashi in Great Edo (Tokyo) on December 15. Having already toured around the Kyūshū region, he now plans to spend two months crossing the Korean Peninsula, then circle through Manchuria by May. Always naked, he claims he never catches colds, and has no worries about clothing or fuel. He enthusiastically welcomes both cold and heat, slapping his bare chest and laughing heartily to chase away the chill.

“I plan to preach the spirit and health benefits of nudity in Seoul and other regions. At the beginning of next month, five more members of the Naked Corps will join me in support. How about you? You should become naked as well! When people meet naked, there are no black markets, no quarrels, and no arrogance—everything becomes bright and open. Some people treat me like a madman in this cold, but you simply need to expose your whole body as you do your face. It is not that difficult. You just do not wrap your body up like your face.”

Thus spoke the science of nudity. According to this naked gentleman, his diet is normal, but if he piles two futons at night, he sweats too much to sleep. At this rate, even the coldest weather will be too embarrassed to stick around.

[Photo: Dr. Sonomura on his naked pilgrimage]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) January 17, 1945

The Naked Doctrine [Part I] — An Interview with Medical Doctor Sonomura
The Fearsome Harm of Western Clothing
Prioritize Elimination Over Intake

Except in the case of specialized medicine, modern general medicine has developed on the basis of common-sense practices surrounding clothing, food, and shelter. Thus, it has always assumed that humans require moderate warmth and a corresponding suitable environment. However, the shifting tides of war have placed immense and unrelenting pressure on our clothing, diet, and housing. Even on the Korean Peninsula, one never knows when an air raid might occur. In such cases, it is entirely possible that all three—clothing, food, and shelter—might be destroyed in an instant.

Authorities claim to have established sufficient countermeasures, but when such emergencies occur, it is likely we must rely on our own physical strength to endure hardships for a certain period. Especially since this war is not one that will end in a year or two, it becomes all the more apparent that we must decisively transform our everyday lives to a wartime footing. In this context, the “Naked Doctrine” advocated by Dr. Kenchōsai Sonomura, the so-called “Naked Teacher,” who arrived in Korea the other day, is highly noteworthy. We asked Dr. Sonomura to explain his “Naked Health Method” to help us forge strong, resilient habits that can endure hardship during wartime. The following is Dr. Sonomura's explanation:

Warm clothing and illness always run parallel. In primitive times, humans had no clothes. Correspondingly, illness among them was virtually nonexistent. Even in more recent history, take Japan in the Meiji era: tuberculosis and similar diseases were quite rare. But with the influx of Western customs, breathable traditional garments were replaced with Western-style clothes that clung tightly to the body, and such diseases surged dramatically. This is because bundling up too much causes one to catch colds. The old saying, “The cold is the source of all illnesses,” remains true.

I have always advocated, “Make your whole body your face.” Keep your body bare, like your face, and you will not catch colds.

Sweaters and overcoats, to put it bluntly, are tools of suicide. In addition to nudity, one must always pay attention to the balance between what enters the body and what exits. Current medicine focuses almost exclusively on intake, placing elimination as a secondary concern, but this is often the root cause of poor health. Humans should first eliminate waste and only then eat. This balance must be properly maintained.

A perfect example comes from my experience in the field during wartime: for about twenty days, I ate nothing. I merely chewed on grass roots, tree bark, and sipped muddy water. Yet I endured it well and performed my duties honorably. From this, we see that intake is not such a vital issue.

However, elimination is another matter. Think of the physical and emotional difference you feel before and after relieving yourself—it is obvious. Through regular elimination and wearing light clothing that promotes active metabolism through the skin, and through scheduled bowel movements that keep the body clean, we stay healthy.

Even cerebral hemorrhage is tied to elimination. People who overeat and drink excessively damage their intestines. A weakened stomach and intestines absorb toxins, which then pass into the brain’s blood vessels. But if elimination is functioning properly, one will never suffer from such an illness.

In conclusion, what matters most is training in nudity to prevent colds, and in doing so, to stimulate metabolism and promote thorough elimination. Ultimately, this traces back to the idea that we, as human beings, must shed artificial living and embrace a way of life that is thoroughly adapted to nature.

To rely solely on the government's measures or the blessings of medicine during air raids is disgraceful for any citizen of a nation at war. Air raids will likely increase in frequency. Therefore, now is the time to rigorously train the body so that we may develop the fortitude and resilience—both mental and physical—to remain unshaken no matter what disasters come our way.

[Photo: Dr. Sonomura demonstrating naked calisthenics]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) January 18, 1945

The Naked Doctrine [Part II] — An Interview with Medical Doctor Sonomura
Build Strong Skin
A Cure for All Illnesses: Daily Naked Calisthenics

Even in the bitter cold, one must go completely nude at least once a day and expose the skin to the open air. Gradually extend the duration of this exposure in order to cultivate resilient skin. For this purpose, practicing naked calisthenics is essential, and should be performed each night before bed.

Below are seven illustrated exercises, along with their corresponding health effects:

(1) Leg Raises While Lying Down
The first and second exercises are to be performed on a futon or a tatami mat. Slightly elevate the waist using something like a small pillow, and the head must rest directly on the tatami mat. Do not ever rest your head on a pillow. Keep both legs together and fully extended, then slowly raise them upward. Legs must remain completely straight, forming about a 40-degree angle—just enough that the toes become visible.
Repeat the slow up-and-down motion. Important: when lowering the legs, do not let the heels touch the floor; stop about 15 centimeters above the floor.
It may be initially difficult. You may start out doing only 7–8 repetitions, but you will improve with practice.
Perform two hours after eating, followed by deep breathing.
Benefits: Improves kidney function, alleviates valve disease, hemorrhoids, prevents frostbite, regulates elimination, improves sleep, and sharpens the mind.

(2) Arm Lifts Overhead While Lying Down
Keep both arms straight, lift them into the air, and then move them behind the head until they lie flat and horizontal on the tatami mat. Then lift and return. Repeat.
Benefits: Develops the chest, improves conditions such as hyperacidity, stomach ulcers, pleurisy, and other chest-related ailments.

(3) Thigh and Knee Bending Exercise
Spread the legs. Point the left foot forward. Keep the right foot angled naturally outward. Use the left thumb and index finger to grasp the outside of the left thigh, palm facing downward. Then:

• At count one, bend the right knee deeply.
• At count two, return to standing.
• Repeat on the other side.

The upper body must remain vertical, and the leg opposite the one being bent must remain straight.

Benefits: Helps with sciatica, arthritis, athlete’s foot, beriberi, hemorrhoids, and gonorrhea.

(4) Arm Stretching Exercise
Press both palms to the chest, then push forward and stretch both arms outward to the left and to the right with all your strength. Repeat dozens of times.
If your fingertips tingle, that means that your motor nervous system is functioning normally. 
Benefits: Helps with stomach cancer, ulcers, hyperacidity, and shoulder stiffness, because this exercise helps with nutritional intake.

(5) Lateral Bend with Controlled Breathing
Place one hand on the side of the abdomen. With eight steady breaths (counting from one to eight), slowly bend the upper body to the side. Do not bend suddenly.
Benefits: Supports elimination, helps with appendicitis, duodenal issues, and corrects spinal curvature.

(6) Chest Expansion and Backbend
Raise both hands above the head from the sides to form a rectangle, touching the tips of the middle fingers together. While gazing at the little fingers, bend the upper body far backward. Then return to upright, then repeat the backbend.
Benefits: A powerful exercise for eliminating tuberculosis. Opens the chest cavity properly and regulates breathing. Also helps prevent senility.

(7) Scoop-and-Lift Arm Motion
Extend one hand in front of the navel, gaze at the little finger, and swing the hand upward in a scooping motion, as if lifting something with the palm. Raise it above the head.
Repeat, alternating left and right arms.
Do not twist the torso, as it places stress on the heart.
Benefits: Known as the "body constitution reform exercise."

• Thin individuals gain healthy weight
• Overweight individuals become appropriately lean
• Short individuals may grow taller
• Weak individuals become muscular and sturdy

These exercises must be performed regularly every day. While they may seem difficult at first, the body will adapt with continued effort.

[Illustration: Naked Calisthenics Diagram]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) January 20, 1945

"Scientific Nudity" — A Conversation between Dr. Sonomura and Dr. Imamura
Temperatures of Minus 30 to 40°C Are Too Much
Amateurs Must Not Rush Into It

With the citizens of Seoul shivering in the cold, the arrival of the “Naked Teacher” created a sudden whirlwind of interest. Fuel rations are irregular, shirts are not distributed—yet such complaints vanish in the presence of Dr. Sonomura. He calls overcoats “tools of suicide” and claims that one cannot get sick if one lives naked. But is a life of nudity really so extraordinary? What follows is a scientific discussion on nudity between Professor Imamura of the Seoul Imperial University Medical Department and Dr. Sonomura.

Imamura: What is the lowest temperature you have endured while naked?

Sonomura: I have only experienced down to about minus 25°C. Even then, if you stay still, the cold does get to you. During my lecture at the Seoul Citizens Hall the other day, I definitely felt the chill.

Imamura: I hear you are headed to Manchuria. The southern part may be manageable, but northern Manchuria might be a bit much, no?

Sonomura: If it drops to minus 30 or 40°C, I may have to surrender. The president of our Naked Corps once stayed inside a refrigeration chamber and endured two hours. I only lasted about 20 to 30 minutes before running out.

Imamura: Was that while stationary?

Sonomura: No, I kept moving, doing exercises, and rubbing myself.

Imamura: If you do go to Manchuria, the Continental Academy has climate-controlled rooms for free temperature experiments. You should test your endurance limits there.

Sonomura: I will try it. But the cold of nature and laboratory cold are not the same.

Imamura: When did you begin your nudist practice?

Sonomura: In February of 1940. Our president has been practicing for about 30 years. He is now 62, but still outpaces men weighing 98 kilograms with his vigor.

Imamura: How many members does your group have nationwide?

Sonomura: About 40,000. It is especially popular in cold Hokkaido, which alone has around 10,000 members. When I once toured elementary schools in Hokkaido with 4th, 5th, and 6th grade students who were nude, of course, the locals were quite shocked.

Imamura: Do your fingers not get frostbite?

Sonomura: I have never had it. Perhaps because there is no partial cold—my whole body is exposed evenly.

Imamura: Still, frostbite on the face happens often in Manchuria. Just as no one can run 100 meters in under ten seconds, there are limits to cold endurance.

Sonomura: That is true.

Imamura: Former President Ōmura in Manchuria was a nudist enthusiast. I hear he practiced morning naked calisthenics in any weather. You should meet him.

Sonomura: I would be honored.

Imamura: What is your pulse rate?

Sonomura: Normal—between 71 and 75 beats per minute. Ever since I adopted nudity, I have been healthy with no abnormalities.

Imamura: Is nudity your only form of training?

Sonomura: Nudity and calisthenics alone. Since becoming a nudist, I have gained weight and never been ill.

Imamura: Let me see. (Grabs arms, examines legs) Impressive physique. Solid muscle. No frostbite or cracks in the skin.

Sonomura: Living naked allows me to receive nature’s blessings directly. That must be why I am healthy.

Imamura: Has the cold been hard since coming to Korea?

Sonomura: It is cold. Today is especially cold. But we do not mind heat or cold. In fact, it lifts our spirits.

Imamura: What about baths?

Sonomura: I bathe. But hot baths make it colder afterward, so I prefer cold-water baths.

Imamura: When I told colleagues about this interview, some thought you might be a bit of a fraudster. But meeting you, I can see you are a fine gentleman. (Laughter) Just showing what is possible through training is already quite something.

Imamura: Do you practice judo or kendo?

Sonomura: I did in my student days. Now I practice only naked calisthenics.

Imamura: How about your meals?

Sonomura: I do not eat anything unusual. I usually skip lunch, so I may even eat less than the average person. I do drink alcohol.

Imamura: And bowel movements?

Sonomura: Soft stools. Never had diarrhea. Regular twice a day.

Imamura: History shows that many people once hailed as indestructible have died suddenly. Even the founder of the Ishizuka nutritional method and the Okada meditation method died without serious illness. Training is good, and tracking human limits is medically valuable. But pushing too far has its risks.

Sonomura: I agree. One must not become extreme. I do not insist everyone must go naked. The goal is to wear as little as possible to promote skin breathing and prevent colds.

Imamura: Even if one person removes a single shirt, multiply that by a hundred million and it becomes a serious savings in textile resources. I hear you are known as a nudity advocate.

Sonomura: People say that, but I only remove clothing when it is hot. When it is cold, I do wear layers. In the lab, I work mostly with cadavers, so in summer I wear just a loincloth. I have even gone swimming in early spring, but it does hurt the skin. Amateurs who try it suddenly will suffer.

Sonomura: Going nude without any conviction is meaningless. I want to internalize the Japanese spirit through nudity. I believe I am embodying traditional Japanese thought.

Imamura: Have you ever had boils or furuncles from being nude?

Sonomura: I've never had any lumps ever. In fact, a surgical wound in my lower back used to ache constantly when I wore clothing. Since becoming a nudist, it has healed completely.

Imamura: Which university did you attend?

Sonomura: Kumamoto Medical University.

Imamura: What was your dissertation topic?

Sonomura: “A Study of the Parasympathetic Nervous System.” I studied its general function, focusing on the balance between intake and elimination. I realized that study alone was not enough, so I moved to practice—hence the development of naked calisthenics. Even Professor Kitarō Nishida, who could not straighten his fingers for years, recovered after three months of my training.

Imamura: I do not know about the anatomy, but externally, your condition is remarkable. It shows how far training can take a person. Are your parents still alive?

Sonomura: My father passed away early.

Imamura: And your wife?

Sonomura: She wears clothes. But our children live nude year-round and are extremely healthy.

Imamura: If you were conscripted again, you would have to wear a uniform. That would be a problem, would it not?

Sonomura: That would be a bit of an issue. I doubt they would allow a naked soldier. (Roaring laughter)

[Photo: Right, Professor Imamura; Left, Dr. Sonomura]

[Transcription]

京城日報 1945年1月8日

裸全体を顔にせよ
お江戸から京城まで裸道中
必勝に裸精神を説く
園村医博

オーバを着込んでもなお冷たいこの頃の京城に突如すっ裸の男が現る。半ズボンに上は真っ裸。裸足に草鞋履き片手に『薄着は健康の秘訣』と大書した幟を持つ寒さ知らずの男を驚いて見詰める人達の尻目に『そんなに厚着して何が寒い。京城はそんなに涼しいかね』とでもいいたいように大道を闊歩して行く。この人は東京都にあるニコニコ裸部隊九州総局長医学博士園村健聴斎氏だ。

『この戦争を勝ち抜くためには心ばかりでなく体もすっぱだかでやって行かねばならぬ』と語る園村氏が大江戸日本橋から裸道中を振り出したのが十二月の十五日。九州一円を巡り、これから二ヶ月は半島とあと五月までは満州を一巡して帰るという年中裸で絶対に風邪を引かず衣料や燃料の心配はない。寒さも暑さも大歓迎だと裸の胸をびしゃりと叩き寒さを吹きとばす哄笑ぶりである。

『京城をはじめ各地で裸精神と裸健康を説くつもりですが、来月のはじめにはまた裸部隊が五人応援に来ます。どうです、あんたも裸になりなされよ。裸と裸でつき合えば闇もいざこざもそしてお高くとまりたがる奴もなくなるほどに明朗になりますよ。この寒さにと狂人扱いにする人がありますが、体全部を顔のように出せばよいでしょう。ムズカシイことじゃないですよ。体も顔のように包まぬだけですよ』

裸の科学を一くさり。この裸氏は食事は普通だが夜寝るとき蒲団を二枚重ねると汗が出て眠れないとのことだ。これでは寒波も顔負けして尻尾を巻くことだろう。【写真＝裸行脚の園村医博】

京城日報 1945年1月17日

裸説【上】 医博園村氏に聴く
恐る可き洋服の害
摂取よりも排泄を充分に

特殊医学は例外として現代の一般医学はすべて常識的な衣食住生活を肯定したうえでの発達である。だから人間は適度の保温とそれからくる適当な環境を是非必要とされていた。だが戦局の変転はわれわれの衣食住に限りなき圧迫を加える。半島でもいつ空襲があり、それがため一瞬のうちに衣食住三つを諸とも破壊される羽目に落ちいらぬとも限らぬ。その場合、当局では勿論それに要する対策が完備されているとはいうものの、切磋の出来事であるから、或る一定時間まではわれわれがわれわれの体力をもって困苦と戦わねばならぬだろう。そして殊にこの戦争が一年や二年で集結すべき性質のものでないだけに今更感じられることは日頃の生活の決戦的な切替である。この意味において先日来鮮した『裸先生』医学博士園村健聴斎氏の『裸説』は注目に値すべく以下同氏に『裸健康法』の解説をお願いし、決戦下の困苦を切り抜く逞しい日常の糧とする。

厚着と病気とは常に平行線を引いて流れている。原始時代の人間は着物がなかった。それと同時に彼等に病気は皆無といってよかった。近くに例をとってみても、明治時代までは日本に肺結核など余りなかった。それが西洋風習の侵入とともに風通しのよい着物が身体に密着する洋服と替えられるようになって急激に増えて来た。それは厚着から風邪を引くのがもとである。風邪は万病の素とは古い言葉だが、また真理でもある。私は常に『全身を顔にせよ』と提唱して来た。身体を顔の如く裸にして風邪を引かぬためである。

セーターとかオーバなどは極端にいえば自殺の道具である。また裸と同時に常に心掛けねばならぬことは体内の摂取と排泄を旨く調整することで、現在の医学はどうかというと排泄は後の問題とし先ず摂取を第一義的に考えるがため、しばしば健康をそこねる原因をつくる。人間はまず排泄を先にやってから摂取するという工合にこの調和をうまく取る必要がある。そのいい例として私が野戦に征っているとき経験したことであるが、約二十日間というものは何も食わなかった。ただ草の根や木皮とは泥水をすするだけだったが、それで結構我慢できて任務も立派に果たすことができた。これから見ても摂取ということはそう大した問題でない。

ところが排泄だけはそうはいかん。これはわれわれ常に経験していることで便を足す前後の気持の変化だけを考えてもわかる。常に排泄を充分にすることで薄着によって皮膚からの新陳代謝を頻繁にし、また定期的な用便によって常に体内を清潔にする必要がある。脳溢血もこの排泄に関係があるもので暴飲暴食のため腸を悪くした人間がやる。酒で弱くなった胃腸が毒素を吸収し、それが脳血管に移るからだ。これも排泄をよくすると絶対この病気にはかからない。

結論的にいって要は裸の修練を重ねて風邪を引かぬようにすること。そしてそれに伴って新陳代謝をはげしくし排泄を充分にすることで、そのまま根源を遡っていえば、われわれ人間は人工的なものを抜きにあくまで自然に順応した生活を実践しろということだ。空襲下に当局の措置とか医学の恵沢ばかりを蒙ろうとするのは戦う国民として恥としなければならない。これからも空襲は頻繁になって来るだろうが、この機会にうんと身体を練っておき、如何なる災難に遭おうとびくともしない精神と体躯をつくっておく必要があると思う。【写真＝裸体操の園村博士】

京城日報 1945年1月18日

裸説【下】 医博園村氏に聴く
丈夫な皮膚を造れ
万病に良し・日に一度裸体操

厳寒でも一日一回は必ず裸になり大気と皮膚とを接触せしめよ。そしてその裸の時間をだんだん延長させて強靭な皮膚を造りあげねばならない。又それには裸体操の実行が必要で就寝前に励行する。以下七種の運動を図解し、その効果する点をあげる。

（１）一番と二番は蒲団や畳の上に寝て行うもので、腰部を小さな枕のようなものなどで少し高め枕は絶対せず頭はじかに畳につける。そして両足を揃えて真っ直ぐ伸ばし、静かに足先を上方にあげる。このとき足はあくまで真っ直ぐ伸ばす必要がある。そして爪先が見える位、恰度四十度位の角度になる。この静かな上下運動の反復であるが、降ろすときが大事で、降ろすときも踵は絶対畳につけず、五寸位上の方で止める。最初は七八回で苦しいが、慣れると回数も増える。この運動を食後二時間して、行い終えたら必ず深呼吸をすること。効果は腎臓をよくし、弁膜症、痔を治し霜焼を防いで排泄が順調になり熟睡ができて頭をよくする。

（２）両手を真っ直ぐ揃えてそのまま中空を切り、頭の後へもって行って畳に水平につける。つけたらまた上げる反復運動。効果は胸が発達し胃酸過多症、胃潰瘍、肋膜、胸の疾患によい。

（３）股をひろげて先ず左足を前方へ向ける。右足は自然に外側へ向けたまま左手の親指と人差指で外股をはさむようにし、この時掌が下に行くようにする。これができたら一で右足をグッと曲げ、二で戻す。反対側の足も同じ要領で行い、反復するが上身は常に垂直で曲げる反対の足は真っ直ぐでなければならない。足の神経痛、関節炎、水虫の予防並びに治療、脚気、痔、淋疾の人によい。

（４）両掌を胸につけ前方へ押し出し両手を左右へ腕を伸ばしたまま力いっぱいひろげる運動。数十回反復する。この時指先がジンジンする人は普通に運動神経が働く人。摂取をよくする方法で胃癌、胃潰瘍、胃酸過多、肩の凝りに良い。

（５）片方の手を横腹につけ、一から八までの八呼吸をしながら上体を静かに段々と横に曲げる。急激にやるのは禁物。これも排泄の運動で盲腸、十二指腸によく脊髄の曲がっているのが治る。

（６）両手を左右から頭の上にもって行き矩形を造り中指を指先で合せる。そして小指を見つめながら上体をうんと後ろにそらす。そうして前に戻しまた後にそらして反復する。肺病撃滅運動で胸腔を正しく開かせ呼吸を調整する。老衰の予防にもなる。

（７）片手を臍の前に出し小指を見つめながら手を横上の方へちょうど手の裏で物を掬い上げる恰好で頭の上に振りあげる。これを左右交叉にやるが体は絶対にねじってはいけない。心臓を圧迫するからだ。

これは体質改造運動といって痩せた人は太り、太った人は恰度具合よくなり、背の低い人は高く、弱体の人は筋骨隆々となる。運動全体を通じて規則的に毎日の励行が必要で最初は多少きついかも知れないが続行するうちによくなって行く。【凸版＝裸体操図】

京城日報 1945年1月20日

裸を科学する、園村博士・今村博士 対談
零下三、四十度は無理
素人は急激にやらぬこと

寒さにふるえる京城人に、裸先生の入城は時ならぬ話題の旋風をまき起した。燃料の配給が不円滑だ。シャツの配給が無い。こんな不平も園村博士の前には姿を消さざるを得ない。博士は外套は自殺の道具だという。裸でおれば病気はしないと説く。裸の生活とはそれほど素晴らしいものなのか。以下は城大医学部教授と園村博士との『裸を科学する』対話である。

今村：裸の耐寒最高レコードはどの程度ですか。

園村：二十五度ぐらいまでしか経験しておりません。しかし二十五度以下でも静止しているとやはり寒さを感じます。先日府民館で講演したときは大分こたえました。

今村：満州へ行かれるそうですが、南満はまだいいとして北満はちょっと無理ではないですかな。

園村：零下三十度、四十度になるとやはり参るかも知れませんね。私どもの裸部隊の会長が電気冷蔵の中に入ったことがありますが、二時間ぐらいは大丈夫でした。私は二、三十分でとび出してしまいましたが。

今村：静止してですか。

園村：いいえ、中で体操したり手でこすったりします。

今村：満州へ行ったら大陸科学院に温度などの自由になる冷房室がありますから、一度どの程度まで耐えられるか実験されたらいいでしょう。

園村：やってみましょう。しかし自然の寒さと実験室の寒さとは違いまして。

今村：裸の発心をされたのはいつごろですか。

園村：十五年の二月からです。私の方の会長はもう三十年ぐらいやっていますが、今年六十二の老齢にも拘わらず、二十六貫の壮者をもしのぐ矍鑠ぶりです。

今村：全国の会員数は。

園村：約四万あります。特に寒い北海道に盛んで道内だけで約一万。私が先年国民学校の四、五、六年の生徒を一人づつ連れて（むろん生徒も裸ですが）講演して廻ったときは道民はだい分驚いていましたよ。

今村：指の先が凍傷になりませんか。

園村：まだ裸になって一度もなったことがありません。指先だけという部分的な寒さがないせいではないでしょうか。

今村：それにしても局限があって、満州には顔の凍傷がありますよ。たとえば百米を人間が走るには、十秒がどうしても切れないのと同様に、耐寒もいかに錬成しても四十度五十度では無いでしょう。

園村：それはそうです。

今村：満州では大村前総裁が裸礼讃者で、健康法としてどんな寒中でも朝裸になって体操をしておられたそうです。満州へ行ったら会われたらいいでしょう。

園村：ぜひお目にかかってお話をしましょう。

今村：脈はいくつぐらいですか。

園村：標準通りです。七十一から五ぐらい。裸になってから健康になっただけで何も異状はありません。

今村：錬成は裸だけですか。

園村：裸と体操だけです。裸になってからめきめきと体重も増し病気をしたことがありません。

今村：どれどれ。ちょっと身体をみせて下さい。（腕をつかんだり、足を見たりして）ほほう、いい身体ですな。筋肉が固い。なるほどしもやけやひびもいれていませんね。

園村：裸で暮らすと自然の恵みがじかに受け取れて、そのせいで健康になるのでしょう。

今村：朝鮮へ来て寒くはありませんか。

園村：寒いです。きょうもなかなか寒いです。しかし私たちは寒さも暑さも厭がりませんから寒さが辛いどころか、むしろ明朗です。

今村：風呂はどうですか。

園村：風呂は入ります。唯熱い風呂に入ると出たあとが寒いですから水風呂の方が気持ちがいいです。

今村：実は今日あなたと対談するという話をきいて周囲の連中がどうも些か山師的なものがありそうだからというようなことをいっていましたが、お会いして立派な紳士であることを確かめました。（笑声）とに角錬成すればこれだけになれるということを示されただけでも大したものです。

今村：柔剣道はやっていますか。

園村：学生時代にはやりましたが、今は裸体操一つです。

今村：食事は。

園村：別に変ったものを食うわけではありません。昼食は殆どとりませんから寧ろ普通人より量が少ないかも知れません。酒は飲みます。

今村：便はどうですか。

園村：軟らかい方で下痢など起こしたことなく一日二回規則的にあります。

今村：古来強力無双だといわれた人間が案外あっけなく死んだ例は沢山ある。石塚式の食糧法を発見した人もまた岡田式静座法の提唱者も大した病気をせずに死んでしまった。人間も大いに錬成を重ねることはいいことだし、また体力の限度を記録することは医学上から見ても大きな貢献には違いありませんが、それかといって余り無理をすることは人間の体力に限度がある以上どうかと思われます。

園村：そうです。偏狭に陥ったらいけません。だから無理は絶対にしない。全部が全部裸になれともいいません。なるべく薄着をして皮膚呼吸を容易にさせ風邪をひかぬようにするのが眼目なんです。

今村：一人がシャツ一枚を脱ぐにしても一億と見れば繊維資源の立場からして大したものですからね。園村先生も裸礼讃だそうですね。

園村：世間からは裸説を提唱しているように見られているらしいですが、私はただ暑いから脱ぐというだけの話しで寒いときはやはり着こみます。研究室など相手といえば死体だけですから夏は褌一枚です。春先など水泳をしたこともありますが、やはり皮膚が痛みますね。素人が急激に無理をすると大変な結果を来します。

園村：裸になるといっても何かの信念がないことには、なんにもならぬと思います。私は裸になることで日本精神を体得したい。そして古来の日本思想を体得しつつあると思っています。

今村：裸になってフルンケルは出来ませんか。

園村：腫物など一回もありません。それのみか腰部の手術したところが着物を着ていた頃は始終痛んで困っていましたが裸になってから不思議に治りました。

今村：学校は。

園村：熊本医大です。

今村：学位論文はなんですか。

園村：『副交感神経の研究』です。副交感神経について一応全般的勉強はしましたが、主にやったことは摂取と排泄を中心にした問題です。そして研究だけでは駄目だと思い、実践に移したわけで裸体操もそこから生れています。西田幾太郎先生なども数年、指が曲がって伸ばすことができませんでしたが、私の体操で三ヶ月間でなおりました。

今村：解剖学的にはどうだかわかりませんが、外見だけでも立派なことに驚きました。人間も錬成をすればここまで来られるのですね。両親は健在ですか。

園村：父は早く亡くなりました。

今村：奥さんはやはり。

園村：妻は着物を着ています。子供は年中裸ですが非常に元気なものです。

今村：再度お召しがあったらどうしても軍服を着なければなりませんが困るでしょう。

園村：それはちょっと困りますね。裸の兵隊さんなんて許可していただけないでしょうから。（哄笑）【写真＝右今村教授、左園村博士】

Source: National Library of Korea—Digital Newspaper Archives

As Seoul froze in the winter of 1944–45, Korean families were told to share kitchens and bathe together to save coal for Imperial Japan’s war effort

This 1945 Japanese newspaper article presents a seemingly grassroots roundtable of Korean housewives from all walks of life gathering in Seoul to discuss wartime fuel shortages. On the surface, it reads as a sincere community discussion. But read between the lines, and it becomes clear: this is colonial propaganda, carefully scripted so that the Korean housewives' ideas and proposals align with the authorities' agenda.

The so-called “discussion” follows a familiar formula — women voice carefully framed complaints about unfair fuel distribution, and then gradually “propose” solutions that just happen to align with state policy: communal cooking, shared baths, and mutual sacrifice. These are not grassroots ideas, but regime talking points delivered through the mouths of colonized women to manufacture consent and compliance.

The authorities then step in, paternalistically “listening” to the women, offering vague reassurances, while praising their endurance and promising to work harder. This performance reinforces the narrative of a benevolent Japanese state and loyal Korean subjects pulling together in wartime.

Despite the heavy propaganda, this article provides a rare glimpse into how the residents of Seoul heated their homes in the winter of 1944-45. We learn that most of them used coal, while a select few had access to natural gas. These women, ranging from widows to factory workers’ wives, shared frank frustrations about the unfair fuel distribution, regional disparities, and how even basic warmth had become a struggle. Some families had to heat a single room for survival, while others received triple the allotment. There were even reports of people dismantling fences and water tank lids to burn for heat.

The communal cooking and shared baths were arranged by the Patriotic Groups (aegukban), or neighborhood cells comprising a few households each which formed the most basic governing unit of the colonial regime. The Patriotic Groups were not grassroots associations but surveillance tools embedded in every neighborhood, responsible for tasks like monitoring loyalty, organizing labor, enforcing rationing directives, holding Japanese classes, arranging marriages, and organizing mandatory State Shinto prayers and shrine visits. They were the local level organizations of the Korean Federation of National Power (国民総力朝鮮連盟, 국민총력조선연맹), which functioned as the one and only political party of Korea. Based on the article, the patriotic group leaders had broad authority to order families to share their kitchens or bathtubs with other members of the neighborhood cell, revealing the deeply coercive nature of Imperial Japanese colonial governance at the most intimate levels of daily life. 

The news illustration shows a man walking out of a house with a sign saying "風呂当番" or "bath duty", indicating a shared bath. He says to his neighbors, "ヤマ、お先に", meaning "Oh, go ahead".

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) January 30, 1945

Roundtable Discussion in Print: Fuel (Part 3)
Bathing and Cooking Done Communally
Large Disparity in Rations by District

Voices of sincere housewives striving to rebuild a resilient wartime lifestyle, offering suggestions such as “What if we try this?” or “What about that?” under limited living conditions, overflow with a strong will to endure that has been forged through managing their kitchens. In the harsh winter months, fuel concerns have emerged as one of the most pressing issues, second only to rationing overall.

．．．．．．◇．．．．．．

Yoshiko Kataoka (Company Employee's Wife):
There are significant regional disparities in fuel distribution that still have not been corrected, and this is troubling. I do not expect full provisions, but we need at least a minimum guaranteed amount, or we cannot manage life in this cold.

Chito Matsumura (Company Employee's Wife):
I have heard that the eastern part of the city has received relatively more briquette rations, but in places like Yongsan and Misaka (present-day Huam-dong), people are treating even a single briquette as something precious.

Masuyo Umemura (Widow):
The distribution seems to differ significantly depending on house size, but for both cooking and heating, the minimum fuel needs should not vary so much.

Misaki Asō (Patriotic Group Leader):
Even for large houses, if there are more family members, a minimum standard of warmth could still be maintained by heating just one or two rooms.

Take Hirose (Midwife):
Distribution limits are set based on number of rooms, household members, availability of gas, and whether a bath is present. But this seems more like an ideal theory. For example, when fuel is distributed in less than the prescribed amount, households deemed to require the minimum get so little they have no sense of how to use it effectively. Even if the distribution is not perfectly equal, the gap should be narrowed more.

Nobuko Nakashima (General Store Owner's Wife):
There is a large house nearby with a family of four. My house is smaller, but we are a family of five. When briquettes were distributed, they received three boxes, and I received only one. That large house is only heating two rooms, while I, with more people, am also heating two rooms. The actual fuel consumption should be similar, but I cannot make sense of this distribution no matter how I think about it.

Asō (Patriotic Group Leader):
Fuel is distributed by patriotic groups, so in such cases, instead of sticking strictly to the rules, neighbors should adapt to circumstances and share. Since we are a people at war, a mutual spirit of patience and cooperation could resolve these issues.

Sachiko Takenaka (Distribution Shop Owner's Wife):
That is very true. Even with the gas nowadays, while it is supposed to be available for each household, it produces no flame at all. When we use it, rice does not cook, which is very frustrating (laughter). If it cannot be used properly, perhaps it would be better to centralize gas usage by patriotic groups and ensure stronger gas output, using it jointly. On top of that, homes that have gas receive lower fuel rations, even if their gas is not functioning properly.

Tomoko Shirakawa (Factory Worker's Wife):
This might sound like a complaint, but as you know, houses in the Korean peninsula mostly use ondol heating. At my house, we only warm one room, and the whole family eats and sleeps there. But with constant movement between cold and warm rooms, my grandmother and children have fallen ill. Unheated ondol floors are freezing cold, as if summer and winter switch places instantly.

Fusae Nakamura (Government Official's Wife):
Meanwhile, some households are still taking daily baths.

Asō (Patriotic Group Leader):
If it takes ten units of wood or coal to heat a bath for one household, that is one hundred units for ten homes. But if neighbors used one home’s bath collectively, it could be done with fifty units or even just thirty, depending on the number of households involved. In every patriotic group, there should be at least one or two homes with baths, so if people pool fuel or take turns heating, significant savings could be achieved.

Umemura (Widow):
That is true. Whether it is communal cooking or communal bathing, discussions often stall due to personal preferences, but if the authorities gave a clear directive and guidance, I believe implementation would go surprisingly smoothly.

Kataoka (Company Employee's Wife):
This might be inappropriate to say, but most households are securing fuel outside the rationing system. There are also shops openly selling expensive fuel on the streets. If all of that could be rerouted into the official distribution, we could ensure a minimum standard of warmth for all.

Nakamura (Government Official's Wife):
Using such expensive fuel drives our monthly fuel costs up to nearly 200 yen, not just 100 yen. If we could get by on rations alone, we could actually save money.

Asō (Patriotic Group Leader):
I am drying and using any combustible waste from the kitchen or trash, but it is only a small amount, and while it helps morale, it does nothing for warmth (laughter).

Matsuyama (Company Employee's Wife):
In places like Seoul, half the year is winter, so the fuel issue is extremely serious. Even things like fence panels and water tank lids are disappearing, probably because someone is using them for warmth somewhere (laughter).

Koku Irie (Company Employee's Wife):
We sometimes hear unpleasant stories about how fuel passes from retailers through the patriotic groups to households. Could the town councils make fuel quantities and allocations more transparent? Even if supplies are short, clear information helps us endure hardship with a better attitude.

---

Response from the Authorities

Efforts Will Be Increased for Distribution

◇ Regional disparities in fuel allocation occurred because distribution was carried out sequentially according to availability. For districts like Mapo and parts of Seodaemun, which have not yet received supplies, firewood cut from city-owned forests and shipments from Siheung are being redirected. Firewood stockpiled in Gwangju had been delayed due to transportation issues, but it will soon arrive to meet general demand.

Smokeless coal, which is the primary fuel, is now being urgently prioritized to areas with previously low distribution rates. Firewood and charcoal for the New Year were distributed equally to all households, and future fuel will be allocated based on designated distribution limits. While it is said that large and small houses do not differ much in consumption, allocations are assessed primarily by number of family members, with number of rooms also considered, and the differences are not as great as people imagine. This can be confirmed by looking at the distribution limit charts held by each patriotic group leader.

If there are any concerns about the fuel distribution, residents are encouraged to report them directly, and the government will respond appropriately.

We deeply appreciate the cooperation and fuel conservation efforts being made under such difficult circumstances. The city office, in coordination with relevant agencies, will strive even harder to fulfill the expectations of the people.
(Mr. Nishiwaki, Head of Economic Affairs, Seoul)

---

Appreciation for Growing Awareness of Communal Living

◇ Not only for the sake of fuel conservation, but the very fact that ideas like communal cooking and communal bathing are emerging spontaneously from housewives is truly heartening. The Korean Federation of National Power, Seoul Branch will work to support this growing enthusiasm and turn it into action.

As a form of wartime lifestyle, communal living is one of the most practical approaches. After a comprehensive survey, we will work quickly to develop concrete plans to realize these public proposals and transform them into a unified national effort.
(Mr. Inoue, Head of Total War Mobilization Division, Seoul)

[Transcription]

京城日報 1945年1月30日

紙上井戸端会議 燃料（３）
お風呂も炊事も共同で
地区的にとても配給量に差

こうもしたら、ああもしたらと限られた生活環境のなかから逞しい決戦生活の再建を目指す真摯な主婦の声は、台所を通じて会得された勝ち抜く強い生活意欲が頼母しくもほとばしっているが、冬季生活の燃料問題は配給問題に次いで熱心な話題が提供された。

．．．．．．◇．．．．．．

片岡よし子（会社員夫人）：燃料の配給が地区的に随分相違があって、今もって是正されず困ります。充分にとはいいませんが最低量だけは確保して頂かねば低温生活も手がつけられません。

松村チト（会社員夫人）：府内の東部は比較的煉炭の配給が多かったように聴きますが、龍山、三坂の方では一個の煉炭を拝むように使ってます。

楳村増代（未亡人）：家の広さによって随分配給が違いますが炊事用にしても暖房用にしても最低限度からいえばそう相違のあるはずがないし．．．

麻生ミサキ（愛国班長）：どんなに広い家でも世帯人員が多くなれば最低温生活は一室乃至二室位を暖めることによって、それで切り抜けられるのではないでしょうか。

広瀬タケ（産婆）：配給限量が間数、人員ガスの有無及び浴場の有無によって違いますが、これは単に理想的な考え方のようです。たとえば現実に配給限量以下の量が配給されてる時、最少限の査定を受ける家庭は燃料使用の目安さえつきません。均等でなくても配給量の開きをもっとせばめて頂きたいものですね。

中島信子（雑貨店主婦）：近所で随分大きな家がありますが家族は四人です。私の内は小さい家ですが家族は五人。そこへ煉炭の配給があった時大きな家では三箱、私の方は一箱でした。その大きな家では二部屋しか暖房していません。私の方も家族が多いため二部屋全部を暖めています。こんな場合消費する燃料の量は違いはないと思うのですが、どう考えてみても解しかねます。

麻生:燃料は班単位の配給になっていますから、そうした場合規則にばかりにとらわれず実状に応じて譲り合ったらよいのですね。大きな戦争をしてる国民同志ですから、お互いに不便を忍び合う気持ち一つで解決されるのではないでしょうか。

竹中幸子（配給店主婦）：本当ですわ。最近のガスなんかも各家族で使用出来る代わりに少しも焰がでずガスを使ったときは御飯が出来そこないで困ります。（笑声）まともに使えない位なら班単位に一ヶ所位にしてガスの出を良くし共同で使ったらまだ良いのではないでしょうか。おまけに出ないガスでもガスのある家は燃料の配給も少なく査定されるんですからね。

白川友子（工員夫人）：不平のようになりますけど、御承知の様に半島の家は温突ばかりです。家では一間だけ暖めて家族一同寝起きしていますが、他の部屋との出入りで祖母と子供が病気になりました。炊かない温突はとても冷たくて夏と冬が瞬間に入れ替るのですからね。

中村房江（官吏夫人）：そうかと云えば毎日入浴している家もあります。

麻生：一軒の家でお風呂は沸すのに薪やその他の石炭が十要るとして十軒で沸せば百になりますが、それを一軒の風呂へ近所の人が入りにくるとしたら計算は五十以下三軒で沸かす分位の燃料で足ります。どこの愛国班でも少なくとも一ヶ所や二ヶ所の風呂のある家がありますから燃料を持ちよるとか廻りもちで沸かせば随分燃料が節約になると思います。

楳村：そうですね。共同炊事にしても共同浴場にしてもどうしても個人的な考え方から話がまとまりませんが、当局の方でこうしろとはっきりい指令され指導して下すったら案外すらすらと実現するのではないでしょうか。

片岡：こんなこというのは変ですが、どこのご家庭でも配給以外の燃料を確保していますし、公然街で高い燃料を販売しているところもありますが、あれを全部配給に廻して頂けたら低温生活の最低限度は確保出来るのではないでしょうか。

中村：高い燃料を使えば月の燃料費は百円どころか二百円近くもかかります。配給だけでやれたら貯蓄もぐんと出来ます。

麻生：塵芥や厨芥のなかから可燃性のものは出来るだけ乾燥させて使っていますが、その量はほんの僅かな量で、精神上は効果はありますが、さっぱり温かくはありません（笑声）。

松山：京城など一年の半分が冬ですから燃料問題は痛切ですわ。塀や水槽の蓋がなくなりますが、あれなど皆どこかでそれこそ本当に温められて仕舞うらしい（笑声）。

入江コク（会社員夫人）：燃料の小売商から班を経て各家庭へ廻る経路にときどき不愉快なことを耳にしますが町会などから班配給の数量、割当などをもっとはっきり明示して頂けないでしょうか。足らなければ足らないでも明るい気持ちで耐乏生活に打ち勝ってゆきたいと思います。

当局の答
今後は配給に一層努力

◇地区的に配給量の差があったが、これは入荷に応じて順次配給したためで、麻浦、西大門区の一部の未だ配給していない地区には府内の私有林を伐採した〇〇棚や始興から入荷の〇〇棚をふり向けている。また広州に山と積まれた薪炭は足の問題で行き悩んでいたが近く入荷し、一般の需要に応じられる。

主燃料たる無煙炭は現在配給率悪かった地区へ優先的に緊急配給を行っている。正月用薪炭の配給は各戸均等に行ったが、今後の燃料配給は定められた配給限量で行うが、広い家も小さな家も大して消費量は違わないというが、実際には家族数に重点を置き、間数量も考慮に入れて査定したもので、一般に考えるほどの差はない。これは各班長の手許にある配給限量表を見て頂けばすぐ解ることで、今後燃料配給に若し不審な点があったら、遠慮なく当係へ申し出て頂けば適宜善処する。

皆さんが乏しいなかから協力し燃料を節約して頂いていることがよく解り感謝に堪えない。府としても関係各庁と連絡の上、今後の燃料配給にはより一層努めて皆さんの期待に副うつもりです。（西脇京城府経済課長）

共同生活の自覚嬉し

◇燃料節約の意味ばかりでなく、共同炊事、共同浴場の説が一般主婦の間から起ったことは誠に喜ばしいことで、府聯盟としてもこうした盛り上がりつつある皆さんの熱意を冷まさぬよう何らかの形で実現するよう努力します。

戦時生活の形態として共同生活は最も簡易な形で、全般的に調査してみてこうした一般の要望は是非実現させるよう早速具体案を練って一つの総力運動としたいと思います。（井上京城府総力課長）

Source: 키워드 검색 - 신문 검색 - 대한민국 신문 아카이브

February 1945 news report painted Korean passengers as ‘loud’ and ‘unruly’ while praising Japanese as orderly and ‘appreciative’, detailing the broken and lawless overcrowded state of train travel in wartime Korea

 By early 1945, the Pacific War had dragged on for over three years, and Imperial Japan’s war machine was straining under the immense pressure. Nowhere was this more evident than in Korea’s crumbling railway system, which was plagued by overcrowding, resource shortages, and lawlessness. Water mains at train stations were failing, leaving passengers unable to access even basic drinking water. Food was scarce. And yet, rather than focusing on these systemic failures, this Imperial Japanese newspaper article from February 1945 seems to shift the blame onto the passengers themselves—particularly Koreans, whom it portrays as disruptive and inconsiderate.

Grainy news photo of inside of train car.

The article sets up a clear racist dichotomy: Japanese passengers are described as orderly and appreciative, while Koreans are labeled as loud, argumentative, and so selfish that they clog train aisles with oversized luggage in violation of regulations. What it fails to acknowledge, however, is that this so-called "bulky luggage" was later revealed, in an August 1945 report, to have played a crucial role in bringing desperately needed food from the countryside into the starving cities. Meanwhile, Chinese and Manchurian passengers are stereotyped as aggressive and fixated on money, reinforcing Imperial Japan’s racial hierarchy.

Beyond these racist narratives, the article paints a picture of lawlessness aboard Korea’s wartime trains—with rising pickpocketing, undeclared cash smuggling, and travel permit fraud. The unrefined nouveau riche black marketeers, who got rich quick profiting off the inflationary war economy, were seen more and more among the first- and second-class passengers. 

In essence, this article is not just about a collapsing train system—it is about an empire struggling to maintain its grip, both physically and ideologically, as its war efforts falter. What was framed as "passenger misbehavior" was, in reality, the natural outcome of a system breaking under the weight of its own failures.

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) February 26, 1945

Decline in Passenger Quality in First and Second Class

Overwhelming Amounts of Luggage Brought Onboard
Sunday Paper Investigation

"Enemy aircraft approaching!" The cabin chief repeatedly shouts. The train is in motion, and by the time the lookout spots enemy planes, it is already too late. What follows is a low-altitude strafing run by the enemy. The train interior is plunged into darkness for a moment. "Where are my leg wraps? Where is my luggage?" Passengers, who had been leisurely sleeping without their air-raid gear, are thrown into instant chaos. Injuries occur one after another. This is what happens when training and discipline break down. This is the tragic reality of train travel in Korea during wartime.

As a reporter, I wanted to investigate the state of these "decisive battle trains", so I boarded Train No. 12, packed with passengers from Seoul, and Train No. 1, which departed Busan carrying mainland Japanese travelers.

Observations on Train No. 12

Train No. 12 was not overly crowded. As the only express train departing from Seoul, it demonstrated a commendable level of self-restraint. At departure, some men had pushed past others to secure seats, leaving women carrying children standing. However, soon after leaving the station, the enforcement of the three-person bench rule restored order.

However, the luggage blocking the aisles was unacceptable by any standard. Until the train reached Busan, these bags remained a persistent obstacle for passengers. Though the quantity was not excessive, the luggage itself was often too large. The official luggage size limit of 1 shaku 1 sun cubic (approximately 33 cm per side) is not an empty regulation. To enforce this, all baggage should have tags clearly displaying length, width, height, and volume, and oversized items should be rejected at ticket gates.

Inspecting the train’s first-aid kit, it contained wound medicine, gastrointestinal medicine, and stimulants, making it well-equipped. However, bandages and gauze were in short supply. Passengers must carry triangular bandages or personal bandages as an absolute necessity.

When inquiring about fire extinguishers, the response was that none were available. Immediate installation of simple extinguishers is necessary. Compact fire suppression lamps using hydrochloric acid coal solution, "Kwajalein" soda solution, or sodium carbonate powder would be effective in enclosed train compartments.

I gave the cleanliness of the train an evaluation score of about 70 points out of 100 thanks to cooperation between passengers and staff. However, in one or two cars, windows were grimy with soot and dirt and the stench from toilets spread throughout the cabin.

Observations on Train No. 1

After leaving Train No. 12, I boarded Train No. 1 in Busan, which carried only mainland Japanese passengers. Upon stepping in, an instant realization struck—"Ah!" The sight was refreshing, and that made me happy. The luggage was neatly arranged, and you could go through the vacated aisle from one end of the train to the other. This was a complete victory over the Korean passengers on Train No. 12.

In terms of attire, two women stood out in flashy kimonos, but considering that some Korean passengers still wore traditional chima skirts, the contest was about even. However, both groups scored about 80 points out of 100 in adherence to air-raid gear regulations.

The dining car was overcrowded, with passengers unable to enter. When I finally managed to speak with the head steward, he explained:

"Our meals are wartime rations, as you can see, but compared to the past, the number of customers has increased tenfold. At peak times, we make an effort to alleviate these difficulties by serving meals for 400 to 500 passengers. Considering that Manchuria and China trains only serve about 50 people per session, we should be recognized for our efforts."

I asked about the water supply situation: "Recently, passengers cannot get water at stations, so they bring water bottles and come to the dining car requesting water. Can anything be done about this?"

The head steward, responded, "As you pointed out, the number of passengers has increased and the water pipes fail at the train stations, so the water tank in the dining car is always running low." 

I asked about crowd control: "Can anything be done to deal with passengers who push forward in a disorderly way?"

"They push forward with a herd mentality, so the passengers often turn become unruly. It is a real problem."

Classification of Passengers Based on Behavior

It is said that selfish passengers tend to fall into three broad categories:

1. Japanese mainland passengers – demanding but appreciative once served.
2. Korean passengers – loud, argumentative, and full of complaints.
3. Manchurian and Chinese passengers – rough, aggressive, and focused on money.

Crime Trends and Passenger Quality

I managed to speak with a traveling police officer on board the train, and I asked him about crime trends and the quality of the passengers. He confirmed:

• Pickpocketing has increased. Most thefts occur in the crowds at dining car entrances or when people while buying bento meals, which are places where people get distracted.
• Fewer passengers are carrying cameras or watches for resale.
• A significant number of passengers from Manchuria and China are smuggling in undeclared cash in violation of regulations.

He also noted a decline in the quality of first- and second-class passengers, stating:

"The quality of the first- and second-class passengers has fallen and the number of nouveau riche who profited from the inflationary economy has increased. In the past, second-class passengers were more refined, and first-class passengers carried themselves with dignity. Even we felt intimidated by them. However, today, first-class passengers have clearly lost their former prestige."

A train officer confirmed:

"Yes, the quality of upper-class passengers has definitely declined. However, overall, we see a stronger shift toward the wartime mindset. Ticket fraud has decreased significantly. However, many travel permits, while valid in form, seem suspicious in content. Recently, we caught someone carrying 30 pre-stamped travel permits, all ready for immediate use. That was really surprising. Naturally, they were confiscated without question. Another common issue is passengers claiming, 'I was pickpocketed and lost all my money—please help me!' Some long-serving train staff have lent out a total of 500 to 600 yen in such cases, but less than a third of it has ever been repaid."

[Photo: Inside the train cabin]

[Transcription]

京城日報 1945年2月26日

一、二等の客質低下
夥しい荷物の持込み
日曜紙上査察

『敵機来襲』車内班長の連呼。列車は進行中で見張員が敵機を見つけた時はもう遅い。続いて敵機の低空射撃だ。車内は一瞬消灯、真暗になる。巻脚絆はどこだ？荷物はどこだ？防空服装をぬいでのんびり寝て居た客は忽ち大混乱。負傷者は相つぐ。これが一たび訓練統一を失ったもの。鮮内列車の喰わねばならぬ惨状だ。

記者は京城からの客を満載した十二列車と釜山から内地の客を吸い込んだ一列車に乗り込んで決戦列車の実態をみた。十二列車は混んでいない。京城唯一の始発急行列車としては見事な自粛ぶりだ。尤も発車当時は男が他を押し分けて坐り込み、子供を負んぶした婦人が立っていたりしたが、発車後間もなく三人掛けの励行で皆落ちついてしまった。

ところが通路を塞いだ荷物はどんなに贔屓目に見ても感心できない。結局釜山に着くまで通行者の徹底的な邪魔物で改善されなかった。箇数は多くないが概して大きすぎる。荷物は最大一尺一寸立方の規定は決して形式的な空文ではない。規定を励行させたいならば今後は手荷物の長さ、幅、高さとその体積を一々荷物に大きく明示した紙片を貼付させ、大きなものは改札口で拒絶することが必要だ。

車内の救急箱を見せてもらう。外傷薬、胃腸薬、覚醒剤など一通りは揃って立派なもの。しかし繃帯とガーゼは心細い。これはぜひ乗客自身において三角巾か繃帯を携帯することが絶対必要だ。ついでに消火器を訊ねたら無いとのこと。簡易消火器の備付は至急に望ましい。塩酸石炭液やクエゼリン曹達液或は炭酸曹達粉末を主体とする小型消火灯は列車の様に密閉した小室に威力を発揮する。車内の清掃は乗客乗務員協力のものとして成績は七〇点と言うところ。窓口には垢と煤煙が溜まり便所は悪臭を車内まで漂わして居るのが一二輌あった。

十二列車に別れ内地客ばかりの一列車に釜山から乗り込んで内地の空気を吸ってみる。一列車には実の所『あっ』と思った。嬉しくなったのだ。荷物が整然として通路が一直線に全列車を貫いているさまは全く胸がすく総観だ。これは鮮内客側の完全な敗北だ。服装では婦人の派手な着流し二人が目立ったが、これは鮮内にもチマがまだチラつくのと睨み合わせて勝負は五分というところ。だが双方防空服装は先ず八十点、食堂をのぞくと押しかけ大食客で中に入れない。やっとのことで給仕長を据えると『料理は御覧の通りの決戦食ですが、昔い比べて十倍近い人数で多いときは四、五百名の食事を扱って弁当難緩和に努力しています。満支が一回五十人ぐらいしか扱わないのに比べて努力を大いに買ってもらいたい所です』

『近頃駅では水がもらえぬので客が水筒を持って食堂車にたのみにくるようだが何とかならぬものか』

『今言った通り客が殖えたのと駅水道が故障だったりするので食堂車の水タンクはいつも欠乏している』

『無統制に押しかける客を何とかして整理出来ぬか』

『群集心理で押しかけるのだからとかく粗暴になり勝ちで全くの所困っている』

ところで、わが儘な乗客にも大体三種類あるとのこと。即ち内地からの客は難しいが感謝して喰ってくれる。鮮内の客はうるさくて理窟ぽい。満支からの客は粗暴で金銭主義と色分け出来るそうだ。

丁度乗合せた移動警官に乗客の質、犯罪の傾向を聴くと、『近頃スリが増えた。掏られるのは大抵食堂の入口の混雑とか弁当買出しのときの油断に決まって居る。売買目的の時計写真機等の携行は減った。満支から規定を破った現金を持ち込む者も相当に多い。又一二等客も質が下ってインフレ景気の俄成金が殖えた。昔は二等客といえばもっと上品で、一等客は威風堂々として自分らも気押されしたものだが、近頃は一等客も確かに格が落ちている』

乗客専務も『近頃上級車の客が確かに質が下っていますが、全体としては決戦体制へ向った感じです。乗車券の不正などはぐっと減りましたが、しかし旅行証明書は形だけ整っても内容の怪しいのが多いようです。先だっても一人で三十枚もの旅行証明書用紙に印を捺して全部すぐ使えるようにして持っていたのがいましたが実に驚いたものです。こんなのは文句なしに没収です。次に多いのは「財布をすられて無一文になったから何とかしてくれ」というの手合いです。長年勤続の給仕の中にはこんなとき貸した金が五、六百円にもなっているのがいますが、三分の一も返送して来ません』

【写真＝列車内風景】

Source: 키워드 검색 - 신문 검색 - 대한민국 신문 아카이브

Korean Woman in Hanbok Detained by Imperial Police in 1944 Seoul for Wearing the "Wrong" Clothing in Violation of Wartime Attire Regulations

This photo, published by the colonial regime in 1944, captures a police encounter of a Korean woman with members of the Jongno General Uprising Committee's Youth Division during an air raid drill. The woman was accused of violating strict wartime attire regulations imposed by the Imperial Japanese authorities in Korea. These regulations were part of a broader effort to militarize civilian life and enforce a standardized "battle-ready" appearance among the population.

The Youth Division was an extension of the Jongno General Uprising Committee, which operated under the supervision of the Imperial police in Seoul. It was composed of younger members of local patriotic groups, or neighborhood cells, which the police routinely interacted with within their precincts. These groups often convened meetings to discuss loyalty to the empire and were tasked with parapolice activities, such as night patrols and enforcement of wartime regulations.

In this case, the police likely mobilized members of these neighborhood cells to patrol the streets of Jongno district and inspect the clothing of passersby. The Youth Division members, equipped with megaphones, stationed themselves at busy intersections and scrutinized the attire of pedestrians. Violators were detained, admonished publicly, and often photographed or reported to serve as a warning to others.

The woman in the photo was reportedly detained in Kōgane 4-Chōme (present-day Euljiro-4-ga) for wearing a chima dress that did not comply with the August 31 and September 22, 1943 regulations outlined in the Keijo Nippo. These regulations required chima dresses to meet specific wartime standards:

• Style: Chima dresses had to adopt a tubular design instead of the traditional flared shape.
• Sleeves: Sleeves needed to be narrow and short.
• Fasteners: String fasteners were prohibited and had to be replaced with buttons.

It is likely that the detained woman’s dress violated these rules, either because the dress had the traditional flared shape or because she was still using string fasteners. Such police encounters were intended to enforce compliance and instill a sense of urgency and discipline among civilians.

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) August 9, 1944

How Compliant is Your Battle-Ready Attire?

The Jongno Uprising Committee Calls for Compliance

Eradicate Violators of Attire Regulations!

When it comes to wartime life marked by desperate air raids, vigilance begins with proper attire. Despite repeated and stern warnings from authorities via radio, newspapers, and street announcements, the situation in Seoul on the 8th—the Imperial Rescript Commemoration Day—was shocking. Violators of attire regulations flooded areas like Honmachi and Jongno, leaving officials speechless.

At the intersection of Kōgane 4-Chōme, during an air raid drill warning issued at 10 a.m., more than a hundred attire violators filled the streets within just 30 minutes. Traffic was temporarily halted, and they were admonished by Chief Warden Takekuma of the Honmachi Police Station, who sternly lectured them, "The enemy planes are drawing near overhead. Is your attire truly appropriate for this?"

There is now an urgent call for greater vigilance and proper attire maintenance among the general public. [Photo: Attire violator receiving a warning.]

To ensure every single Korean compatriot on is mobilized into combat readiness, the Jongno General Uprising Committee's Youth Division deployed 40 leaders across 15 police stations in high-traffic areas under the Jongno precinct on the morning of the 8th, starting at 7:30 a.m. They used microphones to loudly proclaim, "Air-raid attire is vital, and negligence is unacceptable!" stopping passersby in their tracks and leaving a deep impression. The key points of their lecture were as follows:

"At this decisive moment, upon which the rise or fall of the Imperial Nation depends, are you idly loafing about, consuming without contributing, avoiding conscription through scheming, or recklessly searching for nonessential goods? Have you become like [illegible] with [illegible], losing your soul to the darkness of such a life? ... [illegible] ... Gentlemen, ladies, what about your air-raid attire? Not wearing monpe or gaiters is not just a matter of formality. It is evidence of your lack of mental preparedness. If you recognize this as wrong, do not wait until tomorrow; correct it immediately, starting today."

Source 1: https://archive.org/details/kjnp-1944-08-09/page/n3/mode/1up

Source 2: 키워드 검색 - 신문 검색 - 대한민국 신문 아카이브

Note 1: Much of the text from the microphone lecture was illegible due to the way the high-quality scan from the National Library of Korea was cut off at the edge. But I believe the illegible portion also includes an accusation that the attire violators are profit-seeking scoundrels worshipping liberal capitalism. 

Note 2: The Imperial Rescript Commemoration Day (大詔奉戴日, Taishō Hōtai-bi) was a nationwide patriotic observance established in January 1942 as part of Japan's wartime mobilization efforts during the Pacific War (referred to in Japan as the Great East Asia War, 大東亜戦争). It was tied to the anniversary of the declaration of war against the United States and the United Kingdom, marked by the issuance of the Imperial Rescript on Declaration of War on December 8, 1941. To commemorate this event, the 8th of every month was designated as a day of reflection and mobilization for the war effort.

[Transcription]

京城日報 1944年8月9日

あなたの決戦服装は
鐘路蹶起委員会が呼かく
服装違反者を一掃

空襲必死の決戦生活はまず敏活な服装から。当局がラジオや新聞や街頭放送に口をすっぱくしての厳重な注意にもかかわらず八日大詔奉戴日の京城府内には本町といわず鐘路といわず服装違反者の氾濫ぶりに係官を唖然たらしめた。

訓練警報発令中の黄金町四丁目交叉点の午前十時から僅々三十分間に百余名の服装違反者が街頭にあふれ、一時通行停止を喰って『敵機は頭上に迫っている。きみ達の服装はそれでよいのか』と武隈本町署保安主任の厳重な説諭を受けた。一般府民の今一層の緊張と服装整備が要望されている。【写真＝注意をうける服装違反者】

半島同胞一人残らず戦闘配置につかしめるため、鐘路総蹶起委員会青年部では大詔奉戴日の八日午前七時半から鐘路署管内で交通の輻輳している地域の交番十五ヶ所に幹部四十名を動員。”防空服装は、闇は”とマイクを通じて絶叫、通行府民の足をとどめ、耳をそばたたせ多大の感銘を与えた講演要旨次の通り。

『皇国の興廃をかけた決戦に際しブラブラ遊んで徒食しながら徴用をのがれんとしてあくせくしたり、ないものを買い漁って足を[illegible]のように[illegible]闇の生活に魂を失ったものはありませんか。[illegible]男の方、女の方、あなたは防空服装はどうしましたか。モンペや脚絆をつけないことは形式の問題ではありません。あなたの心の緊張を失った証拠です。悪いと思ったら明日といわず今日直ちに直して下さい』

In 1941, Tokyo officials forcibly settled 1,400 Koreans into an unsanitary slum with no kitchens or bathrooms, and brainwashed them with Imperialist ideology in neighborhood cells enforcing mandatory morning worship of the Emperor

This news article from 1942 highlights the Imperialist ideological indoctrination that was imposed on a small Korean neighborhood in Edagawa, Tokyo, which got its start in 1941 when approximately 1,400 Korean residents of Tokyo were forcibly relocated from areas earmarked for sports venues of the canceled 1940 Olympics. The Tokyo city government constructed 230 basic housing units—effectively barracks—on barren reclaimed land. These units lacked essential facilities such as kitchens, bathrooms, or toilets. The area itself was inhospitable, surrounded by garbage incinerators, disinfection facilities, and poor drainage systems. Frequent flooding and unsanitary conditions compounded the struggles of the residents. However, this propaganda news article from 1942 mentions none of this. Instead, it waxes positively about how the residents are organized into 22 neighborhood cells (tonari-gumi) that enforce ideological indoctrination, such as adherence to mandatory religious rituals such as the 7 am Kyūjō Yōhai ritual (宮城遥拝) which involved deeply bowing several times in the direction of the Imperial Palace in Tokyo while standing, vowing loyalty to the Emperor. The Koreans would have already been familiar with this ritual, because under Imperial Japanese colonial rule, everyone in Korea was required to perform it, with loud sirens reminding everyone to stop what they are doing to perform the prayers. The residents would have also performed the mandatory daily noon prayer, which was a moment of silence in honor of fallen Imperial Japanese soldiers. 

Doctor seeing patients at a clinic in the Edagawa Korean neighborhood.

The settlement house in Edagawa, or 隣保館 (Rinpokan), was established ostensibly to support the forcibly relocated Korean population, providing them with a medical clinic, a cooperative store, childcare facilities, and baths. However, it appears that the house served more as a mechanism for assimilation and control, promoting "imperialization" among Korean residents, pushing them to adopt Japanese language and customs under the guise of welfare and social improvement. This mirrored broader efforts in colonial Korea, where Koreans were integrated into the Aegukban (Patriotic Groups)—neighborhood cells modeled on Japan’s wartime tonari-gumi (neighborhood units). These neighborhood cells, comprising about ten households each, facilitated wartime mobilization, resource control, and ideological indoctrination. The cells also imposed surveillance and compliance, fostering an environment of coercion and control.

The settlement house itself became a physical and symbolic extension of Imperial Japan’s colonial dominance. While framed as a space for welfare, it functioned as a tool for assimilation, control, and the promotion of imperialist ideologies. Forcibly displaced and subjected to poor living conditions, the residents of Edagawa navigated a life shaped by both systemic neglect and the relentless pressures of Japanese imperialization.

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) September 8, 1942

Towards True Imperialization

Young Koreans are growing up

Two Hundred Families Like One Big Household

The Korean Community in the Imperial Capital: The Edagawa Town Settlement House in Fukagawa Ward (2)

About fifty or sixty children with bobbed hair, wearing playful suspenders or simple polka-dotted clothes, stood neatly in ten vertical rows, their cute small hands stretched out inside the newly built wooden-scented auditorium.

"Everyone, we will now bow reverently toward the Imperial Palace where His Majesty the Emperor resides. Show your deepest respect!"

At the command of Director Ikeda, the children solemnly performed a graceful and heartfelt bow in unison.

This is the Edagawa municipal housing complex in the reclaimed land of Fukagawa Ward, stretching out towards the distant sea. It is home to approximately 1,400 Koreans living across 200 households.

Just recently in July, the Tokyo Prefectural Concordia Association established this facility, which is the only settlement house in the Imperial Capital exclusively for Koreans. In just over a month, the residents have embraced it as an extension of their homes, a sanctuary of peace, and a foundation for their lives, making full use of its facilities.

Modern amenities such as a medical clinic, a cooperative store, childcare facilities, and baths have been implemented through the devoted efforts of Director Yakushiji, celebrated as a paternal figure to the Koreans, and a staff of ten. These facilities directly improve the residents' quality of life while also serving as a platform for fostering the Japanese spirit. They play a vital role in promoting the movement for "true imperialization" with relentless vigor.

Director Ikeda shared: "There are twenty-two neighborhood cells here. We emphasize gathering women at regular meetings to teach them the profound spiritual values of the Japanese family. But the most promising are the youth and children."

Centered in Edagawa Town, a youth group exclusively for Koreans has been organized, boasting about 100 members. Their unity is so strong that they even have a brass band. The group actively participates in donation drives, labor service activities, and home-front support movements with commendable zeal.

From somewhere nearby, the chorus of the "Patriotic March" could be heard. The bright red and white Japanese flag atop the vividly painted building began to flutter in the cool sea breeze.

[Photo: The medical clinic within the settlement house building]

Source: https://archive.org/details/kjnp-1942-09-08/page/n2/mode/1up

[Transcription]

京城日報 1942年9月8日

真の皇民化へ

若き半島は育つ

宛ら一家の二百世帯

帝都の半島色：深川枝川町隣保館（２）

おませなズボン吊りや、水玉模様の簡単服をつけたおかっぱさんが五六十人、木の香も新しい講堂に、可愛いお手手をツンと伸ばして十列縦隊…

『皆さん、これから天皇陛下の在します宮城に向かって遥拝をいたしましょう。最敬礼っ！』

池田主任の号令でひそっと心ひきしめ可憐な最敬礼の一ときである。

ここは、はるかに海につづく深川埋立地の市営枝川住宅―約一千四百名の半島同胞が二百の世帯を営んでいる。

半島出身者の生活向上を目ざし東京府協和会がここに帝都唯一の半島者のみの隣保館を開設したのは、ついこのあいだ―七月のことだが、わずか一ヶ月余の日子のあいだに、住民たちは、ここをわが家の延長として馴染み、心の安息所、生活のよりどころとして百パーセントに活用するようになった。診療室、購買部、保育室、入浴室等々の近代的設備は、半島人の父として高名な薬師寺館長はじめ十名の職員の献身的努力により、直接的には住民の生活改善の原動力となり、ひいては日本精神昂揚の運動として展開され、真の皇民化運動にたゆまざる拍車をかけつつあるのだ。

池田主任は語る：『ここには二十二の隣組があり、その常会には、つとめて婦人をあつめ、日本家庭の深淵な精神生活を説くようにしていますが、しかし頼母しいのはやはり、青年と子供ですね』

枝川町を中心に、半島出身者のみの青年団が組織され、約百名の団員の結束は立派なブラスバンドさえ持って、献金運動、勤労奉仕の銃後運動等々に、真先かけての敢闘をつづけているという。

どこからか『愛国行進曲』の合唱…ペンキの色あざやかな建物の上の大日章旗が涼しい海風にはためき出した。【写真＝隣保館内の診療所】

The Edagawa Korean neighborhood evolved further in the postwar era. Following Japan’s defeat in World War II, many Koreans returned to the Korean Peninsula. However, a significant number remained in Edagawa, joined by Japanese residents who moved into the area. Over time, the community faced neglect from municipal authorities, with the Tokyo administration halting essential services such as repairs and waste management. Left with no choice, the residents undertook self-funded efforts to improve their living conditions, building drainage systems and maintaining infrastructure through communal labor.

In 1949, a theft investigation in the Edagawa Korean neighborhood escalated into rioting and clashes between local authorities and Korean residents, resulting in arrests and trials in an event known as the Edagawa incident. 

In preparation for the 1964 Tokyo Olympics, the government took modest steps to integrate Edagawa into the broader urban landscape. Residents, both Korean and Japanese, collaborated to establish shared spaces, including the Chōnichi Children's Park (朝日児童公園). Symbolically named with characters representing both "Korea" and "Japan," the park became a testament to the spirit of coexistence. This period also marked the establishment of institutions such as Tokyo Korean Second Elementary School (東京朝鮮第二初級学校), which provided education rooted in Korean cultural heritage.

By the late 20th century, Edagawa had evolved into a unique neighborhood blending Korean and Japanese cultures. Newcomers from South Korea also contributed to the community's transformation. Institutions like the Edagawa Love Church (枝川愛の教会), established 26 years ago, became centers of cultural exchange. However, as the demographics shifted and historical memory faded, fewer people remained aware of the origins of Edagawa as a community forged through resilience.

Today, Edagawa retains remnants of its storied past, with dilapidated two-story buildings and barracks serving as silent witnesses to the struggles and achievements of its residents. However, gentrification and urban redevelopment have brought change. Proximity to bustling areas like Toyosu underscores the contrast between modern high-rises and the historical core of Edagawa. Efforts continue to preserve the history of Edagawa. Educators, community leaders, and historians are working to document the neighborhood’s heritage, ensuring that future generations remember the sacrifices and resilience of those who built it. 

Link: Edagawa's history as recorded by the Edagawa Korean language classroom