“Even prison will not save you”: unmarried young Korean women feared sexual enslavement in Imperial Japan’s wartime labor conscription, but officials said evaders would be imprisoned and then conscripted anyway (September 1944)

By early 1944, months before Japan formally promulgated the Women’s Labor Volunteer Corps Ordinance in August 1944, reports from colonial Korea described young unmarried women rushing into early marriages to avoid labor conscription. Their panic was not irrational. Korean women had already heard widespread reports of abuse associated with wartime labor mobilization, and many evidently feared that being taken away for “labor service” could expose them to sexual exploitation or trafficking.

Some women may have concluded that imprisonment or a heavy fine was still preferable to conscription. The colonial authorities appear to have anticipated precisely that response.

On September 6, 1944, only two weeks after the ordinance was promulgated on August 23, the following informational article warned that women who attempted to evade mobilization would not escape merely by serving a prison sentence or paying a fine. After completing their punishment, they would still be conscripted.

The ordinance gave the Japanese state a formal legal framework for mobilizing unmarried women and girls between the ages of twelve and forty for wartime labor connected to the Imperial Army, Navy, and other state-directed industries. Calling these organizations “volunteer corps” was therefore deeply misleading: participation was backed by criminal penalties, including imprisonment and substantial fines.

What is especially revealing is the article’s evasive tone. Even after the ordinance had been promulgated, it continued to characterize reports about female conscription as false or exaggerated rumors. It suggested that women were panicking largely because they feared low wages, and reassured readers that the ordinance would not be implemented in Korea immediately. In other words, the authorities simultaneously denied or minimized the policy while explaining the punishments awaiting anyone who resisted it.

This article seems to undermine common revisionist claims that the wartime recruitment of Korean women into Imperial Japan's system of sexual exploitation was fundamentally voluntary. It shows Imperial Japan mobilizing women through threats of imprisonment and fines, attempting to prevent evasion, and publicly downplaying the very coercive system it was preparing to enforce.

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) September 6, 1944

Misunderstandings and Questions About White Paper Conscription
Roundtable on Labor Conscription
Guidance and Paternal Care Await
You Cannot Escape Even by Paying a Fine

[Telephone report from Haeju] The sight of labor-conscripted warriors bravely fighting on the labor front is the most noble expression of the boundless strength of the mighty Empire’s war power. This “white-paper call-up” is the greatest duty of imperial subjects, second only to military call-up itself.

However, the purpose of national labor conscription has not been thoroughly understood among the general public, and some people have various doubts and misunderstandings. Therefore, the Hwanghae Province bureau of this newspaper invited officials, including Mr. Yamaguchi, chief of the provincial Mining and Industry Department, and held a roundtable discussion on labor conscription.

Participants: Mr. Yamaguchi, chief of the provincial Mining and Industry Department; Mr. Ayano Masa, official of the Labor Affairs Section; Mr. Ichinose, Mayor of Haeju; Mr. Ito, chief of the Social Affairs Section; Mr. Matsumoto, chief of the Labor Affairs Section; Mr. Matsushita, chief of the Haeju Police Station; and the Hwanghae bureau of this newspaper.

Newspaper: First, please explain what labor conscription is, what kinds of people are conscripted, how they are conscripted, and the purpose and method of the system.

Mr. Yamaguchi, chief of the provincial Mining and Industry Department: 

Labor conscription in Korea has a distinctive meaning, compared with labor conscription in mainland Japan, because it is placed alongside military conscription. Military conscription sends all qualified men into the army without distinction between rich and poor. In the same spirit as being called up as a soldier, and with the attitude of answering the call on the home front, qualified persons, without distinction between rich and poor, are to work in vital factories and mines.

There are two types of labor conscription: general labor conscription and conscription of designated age groups. In addition, there is also labor mobilization mediated by public officials, but people seem generally to confuse this with the Patriotic Labor Service Corps.

Mr. Ichinose, Mayor of Haeju: The investigation of those subject to labor conscription has been completed, and lists have been prepared by age. Based on instructions from the Governor-General's Office, the mayors and county heads on the front line issue summonses to those subject to conscription, conduct physical examinations and other detailed investigations, and report to the provincial governor.

If there are more qualified persons than the planned number to be conscripted, then the orders are delivered after drawing lots by the fairest possible method. General labor conscription is carried out with certain persons as the target. In that case, various circumstances are taken into consideration. But conscription of designated age groups, like military conscription, is carried out without being bound by individual circumstances, and qualified persons are to be conscripted.

Newspaper: It seems that exemption orders from labor conscription have been issued.

Mr. Yamaguchi, chief of the provincial Mining and Industry Department: Even now, in general labor conscription, various circumstances are being taken into account. As for exemption orders, we have not officially received instructions from the Governor-General's Office.

Newspaper: I think there are cases where considerable numbers are taken even from non-conscripted factories, mines, and other workplaces. Since such places are directly contributing to the strengthening of military power, it would be somewhat troublesome if workers were taken from them. Are there any special measures?

Mr. Ichinose, Mayor of Haeju: Conscription of designated age groups is unavoidable, but in the case of general labor conscription, we will take full care so that production will not be reduced.

Newspaper: Rumors are spreading that women will also be conscripted, and public sentiment is unsettled. Will the Women's Labor Volunteer Corps Ordinance also be applied in Korea?

Mr. Yamaguchi, chief of the provincial Mining and Industry Department: Conditions in Korea differ from those in mainland Japan, so it is not a matter of applying it immediately. Rather, since there is a large source of male labor, the first thing is to thoroughly strengthen male labor mobilization. As for women, one can think of them engaging in agriculture in place of men, or taking up labor actively. I think people may be confusing this with male labor conscription.

Newspaper: It seems that the purpose of labor conscription has not been fully understood.

Mr. Ito, chief of the Social Affairs Section: That is certainly true. The Labor Conscription Ordinance was promulgated in July 1939, and the Military Conscription Ordinance was promulgated in August 1943. Yet the purpose of the older law, the Labor Conscription Ordinance, has not been thoroughly understood and is generally feared. I think people may suspect that, if they are conscripted, they will be used for low wages, because the relief and assistance laws have not been fully understood. This is partly because the authorities have not done enough publicity.

Newspaper: I think the Military Conscription Ordinance is well understood because it had already been tested through the volunteer soldier system. What punishment is there for those who evade labor conscription?

Mr. Matsushita, Haeju Police chief: The policy is strict punishment. However, at present there have been no outrageous persons who fled after receiving an order.

Mr. Ayano Masa, official of the Labor Affairs Section: The law says that those who evade labor conscription are subject to imprisonment for up to one year or a fine of up to 1,000 yen. Apparently there are some misguided people who think that, once they have served the sentence or paid the fine, they can escape labor conscription. But once the imprisonment is finished, they will immediately be conscripted. In other words, they will have earned priority for conscription.

Newspaper: Please explain concretely the treatment of conscripted laborers.

Mr. Ayano Masa: Under the Wage Control Ordinance, basic wages have been established by age. Suppose a person who had been receiving 100 yen is conscripted and receives only 70 yen. If he submits to the company or factory a declaration recognized by the mayor and police chief, then the company or factory will separately provide relief assistance for the difference. In addition, welfare facilities are complete, so there is nothing to worry about.

Newspaper: What about the activities of workers supplied to mainland Japan two or three years ago?

Mr. Matsumoto, chief of the Labor Affairs Section: The year before last, I visited Ōtani Heavy Industries and four other places. In each case, they were people from our home district whom I had recruited and mediated for. They were receiving double the pay, and many workers were very pleased to receive an average of 120 yen. Some returned because of illness, but among those who have now returned to Korea after completing their terms, some are even saying that they want to go back to their former factories.

Newspaper: It would be good to clearly inform people in advance where they will be sent for labor conscription.

Mr. Ichinose, Mayor of Haeju: From the standpoint of counter-espionage, the authorities seem hesitant about that. It is written in the labor summons.

Mr. Ito, chief of the Social Affairs Section: If the company has welfare and benefit facilities in place and provides guidance with paternal care, then people will gladly go. On this point, the Governor-General's Office is making firm arrangements with the Ministry of Welfare.

Newspaper: Please explain concretely the relief and support for conscripted laborers.

Mr. Ichinose, Mayor of Haeju: This time, two people from the city office and two or three town council clerks will also be going. I treat labor conscription in the same spirit as military conscription, based on the purpose of the system. Naturally, that is how it must be.

Mr. Ito, chief of the Social Affairs Section: A person does not lose his previous status because of labor conscription. For example, when a government official is conscripted, he is made to answer the call while retaining his current official status, and even during the period of labor conscription, the years count toward his pension. At companies, too, it is only natural that the period of labor conscription should be included in the calculation of years of service.

Mr. Ichinose, Mayor of Haeju: In order to make relief for conscripted laborers complete, the city intends to establish a relief association like the Military Relief Association, assign specialized staff, and entrust the work in town councils to enthusiastic people, so that all possible measures are taken.

Newspaper: Is there any possibility that the period of labor conscription will be extended?

Mr. Yamaguchi, chief of the provincial Mining and Industry Department: Within Korea, it is two years, while in mainland Japan it is one year. The period is absolutely not to be extended. One year means strictly one year.

Mr. Ito, chief of the Social Affairs Section: The labor conscription period is at most two years. The state never lies. There is no need to worry about such things.

Newspaper: If a parent or sibling is critically ill, or if a family member is sick, will the conscripted person be allowed to return home?

Mr. Ayano Masa, official of the Labor Affairs Section: He will be allowed to return, and even his travel expenses will be paid. However, in such cases, it must be by official telegram.

Mr. Ichinose, Mayor of Haeju: The mayor or county head is to certify it, so people should apply without hesitation.

Newspaper: If a person becomes ill during labor conscription, will he be allowed to recuperate at home?

Mr. Ayano Masa, official of the Labor Affairs Section: Of course. In that case, the labor conscription will be canceled.

Mr. Yamaguchi, chief of the provincial Mining and Industry Department: Labor conscription is placed alongside military conscription. It is a home-front call-up, and at the same time it is a great harvest in the training of Imperial subjects. Without distinction between rich and poor, and regardless of whether one has education or not, people are conscripted just like soldiers. Therefore, they must steel themselves to be called up gladly.

Mr. Ayano Masa, official of the Labor Affairs Section: In one county, a labor affairs official himself was qualified and was conscripted this time. Precisely because the authorities conduct labor conscription fairly and openly, the general public must absolutely trust the authorities and gladly rush forward to the honor of answering the call on the home front.

Newspaper: Are there any inspiring stories about labor conscription?

Mr. Ichinose, Mayor of Haeju: Two or three days ago, a young man rushed into the mayor’s office and pleaded, “Please conscript me without fail.” He was a reliable young man who had already received his papers and currently had a job. At a time when there are outrageous people trying to evade labor conscription, I was deeply moved. At the very least, I want people to answer labor conscription with the same spirit of service and vigor as this young man.

[Transcription]

京城日報 1944年9月6日

”白紙”の誤解と疑問
徴用座談会
待っている指導と親心
罰金を払っても免かれない

【海州電話】徴用戦士が勇躍勤労戦線に敢闘する姿こそ最も尊く、逞しい帝国の戦力の無限な力強さで、この白紙応召こそ応召に準ずる帝国臣民の最大義務である。然るに国民徴用というものの趣旨が一般に徹底せず種々な疑問や誤解を抱いているものがあるので、本社黄海道総局では山口道鉱工部長以下当局者を招き徴用に対する座談会を開催した。

出席者：山口道鉱工部長、勤務課綾野屬、一瀬海州府尹、伊藤社会課長、松本労務主任、松下海州署長、本社黄海総局

本社：先ず徴用とはどんなものか、どんな人がどんな風に徴用されるか、その趣旨や方法について御説明を．．．

山口鉱工部長：朝鮮の徴用は徴兵と対象するところに内地の徴用と特異的な意味がある。徴兵は貧富の差別なく適格者は皆兵隊に行く。その兵に召されるのと同じ気持で銃後応召の精神を以て緊要な重用工場、鉱山で貧富の差別なく適格者は働いて貰う。徴用には一般徴用と指定年齢層徴用の二種類がある。このほかに官斡旋の労務動員もあるが、一般に勤労報国隊と混同しているようだ。

一瀬海州府尹：徴用該当者の調査が済み年齢別に名簿が出来ている。本府の指令に基き第一線の府尹、郡守が徴用対象者に出頭命令書を出し身体検査その他を細密を調査して道知事に報告する。徴用予定人数に比して適格者が多い場合は最も公平な方法で抽籤して令書を伝達する。一般徴用は一定の人間を対象として徴用が行われる。この場合は各般の事情を考慮するが指定年齢層の徴用は徴兵と同じく個人の事情に拘泥せず適格者は徴用することになっている。

本社：徴用免除令が出たようだが．．．

山口鉱工部長：一般徴用はいまでも諸般の事情を加減している。免除令は正式に本府から指令を受けていない。

本社：非徴用工場、鉱山その他事業所でも相当抜かれる場合もあると思う。これは直接戦力増強に貢献しているからとられると一寸困ると思うが、何か特別の対策はないか．．．

一瀬府尹：指定年齢層の徴用は已むを得ないが、一般徴用は充分に考慮して生産の低下を来すようなことのないように万全を期する。

本社：女子も徴用するとのデマが飛び人心が動揺しているが、女子挺身隊令は朝鮮にも適用するか．．．

山口鉱工部長：朝鮮は内地の事情とは違うからいますぐというわけにはいかない。それよりも男子の労務給源が多いから男子の労務強化を徹底強化することであるが、女子は男子に代って農業に従事するとか、積極的に勤労することが考えられる。男子の徴用と混同しているのではないかと思う。

本社：徴用の趣旨が徹底を欠いているようだが．．．

伊藤社会課長：確かにそうだ。徴用令は十四年七月発布され、徴兵令は十八年八月発布されたが、古くから出た法令の徴用令の趣旨は徹底せず一般に恐れられている。援護法が徹底せず徴用されると安い賃銀で使われるのではないかとの疑惧を抱いているのではないかと思う。それというものは当局の宣伝が足らなかったためもあるが．．．

本社：徴兵令は志願兵制度で試験済みだから徹底しているのだと思う。徴用を忌避するものの処罰は．．．

松下海州署長：厳罰方針だ。然し令書の伝達を受けて逃走した不届者はいまのところはない。

綾野屬：徴用を忌避するものは一年以下の懲役、一千円以下の罰金ーとあるので、それさえ済めば徴用を免れるのだという不心得ものがあるらしいが、これは懲役がすんだらすぐ徴用する。まあ徴用の優先権を獲得するわけだ。

本社：応徴士の待遇問題について具体的な説明を承りたい．．．

綾野屬：賃銀統制令により年齢別に基本賃金が制定している百円貰っていた人が徴用されて七十円しか貰えないという場合は府尹、署長の認めた申告書を会社、工場に提出すれば、その会社、工場から差額だけは別に援護補給することになっている。このほかに厚生施設も完全であり心配するようなことはない。

本社：二、三年前に内地へ供出した工員の活躍状況について。

松本労務主任：一昨年大谷重工業ほか四ヶ所を廻ってみた。何れも自分が募集し斡旋した郷土出身者で給料も倍額貰っており平均百二十円も貰っている工員が多く非常に喜んでいた。病気で帰ったものも中にはいるが、こんど満期解除で帰鮮したもので又もとの工場に行きたいと申出るものもあるような状態だ。

本社：徴用の行先を前以てはっきり知らせるとよういと思うが。

一瀬海州府尹：防諜上当局としても躊躇するようだ。令書に書き入れてある。

伊藤課長：福利、厚生施設が整っており親心を以て指導するような会社なら喜んで行く。この点は本府で厚生省としっかと打ち合せている。

本府：応徴士の援護について具体的な説明を．．．

一瀬海州府尹：今回府からも二人、町会書記も二、三人出るが私は徴用の趣旨から徴兵と同じ気持で取扱っている。また当然そうでなければならぬ。

伊藤課長：徴用によって徴用前の身分を失うようなことはない。例えば官吏が徴用されたときは現官のまま応徴せしめ徴用期間中といえども恩給年数が通算される。会社でも勤続年数を徴用期間を含んで通算することは当然だ。

一瀬海州府尹：府としては応徴者援護の完璧を期するため軍人援護会のように援護会を設け専門の職員を置き町会には熱のある人にこれを委嘱し万全を期したい。

本社：徴用期間を延長するようなことはないか．．．

山口鉱工部長：朝鮮内は二年だが、内地は一年ということになっている。期間は絶対に延長しないことになっている。一年は厳格なる一年だ．．．

伊藤課長：徴用期間は長くて二年である。国は決して嘘はいわない。こんなことには心配しなくてよいと思う。

本社：親兄弟が危篤だとか家族に病気しているものがあれば帰して貰えるか。

綾野屬：旅費まで支給して帰して貰える。但しこの場合には公電に限る。

一瀬海州府尹：府尹郡守が証明することになっているから遠慮なく申出ればよい。

本社：徴用中病気にかかった場合には帰宅療養を許すが．．．

綾野屬：勿論許す。この場合には徴用は解除される。

山口鉱工部長：徴用というものは徴兵と対象して銃後応召であると同時に皇民の錬成になるという大きな収穫であり、貧富の差別なく学問のあるとないと問わず兵隊と同じく徴用されるのだから喜んで召される気持を固めることだ。

綾野屬：或る郡で労務係員が適格者で今回徴用された事実がある。それだけに官としては公明正大に徴用するのだから一般は絶対に当局を信じ銃後応召の栄誉に欣然馳せ参じねばならぬ。

本社：徴用美談は．．．

一瀬海州府尹：二、三日前府尹室に飛び込み”私を是非徴用して下さい”と嘆願する一青年があった。最後も出ているし現在職をもっているしっかりした青年で徴用を忌避しようとする不届者があるとき私は非常に感激した。少なくともこの青年のような奉公心と気魄をもって応徴して貰いたい。

Source: Digital Newspaper Archive, National Library of Korea

See also:

• In 1944, Imperial Japan formally conscripted almost all unmarried Korean women ages 12-40 into a forced labor system that had already been used for years to traffic laborers into sex slavery according to testimonies of former comfort women (link)
• Terrified by rumors of forced labor conscription under the Imperial Army, young Korean women rushed into marriages to escape, prompting officials to hold April 1944 press conference to deny and deflect (link)

In 1944, Imperial Japan formally conscripted almost all unmarried Korean women ages 12-40 into a forced labor system that had already been used for years to traffic laborers into sex slavery according to testimonies of former comfort women

On August 23, 1944, Imperial Japan promulgated the Women's Labor Volunteer Corps Ordinance. This ordinance gave the state a formal legal framework to mobilize unmarried women and girls, ages 12 to 40, for wartime labor with the Imperial Army and Navy. According to this news article, those who refused could first be issued a labor-service order, then an “employment order,” and if they still refused, they could face up to one year in prison or a fine of up to 1,000 yen.

The article is striking because it openly admits what had changed. About four months before this ordinance, women’s “volunteer corps” had been organized through government guidance and encouragement. After August 1944, the system was backed by the National General Mobilization Act, with legal penalties for refusal. In other words, the “volunteer” label remained, but the legal reality became compulsory mobilization.

This also connects to an earlier news article from April 22, 1944, which I have also transcribed and translated below. That article reported a sudden surge in early marriages in the Dongdaemun Police Station district. Marriage-service businesses in the area were recording sharp increases in wedding registrations, and the article noted that the ages of brides and grooms had dropped. Some girls getting married were only fifteen or sixteen, and many were seventeen to twenty.

The April article explained the panic bluntly: rumors were spreading that women, too, would be conscripted for labor. In an April 1944 press conference, officials tried to calm the public by insisting that “women will absolutely not be conscripted” and urged people not to rush into “unnatural” marriages merely to avoid mobilization.

Four months later, that reassurance was effectively broken. The August ordinance formally targeted unmarried women and girls from age 12 to 40. Before this ordinance, young Korean men were served with white-paper (hakushi, 白紙) summonses to send them as compulsory labor to factories, farms, and construction sites under the guise of patriotic training.  This time, however, the white-paper summons started being served to young unmarried Korean women as well.

It may be that the panic spread, because word was getting out from the frontlines that at least some women who "volunteered" for labor with the Imperial military were being forced into sex work, and stories from sex trafficking victims were finally becoming widely known in the Korean public through the word of mouth. 

It turns out that there was at least one former Korean comfort woman who may  have been recruited through something similar to the White Paper conscription system of the August 1944 Women's Labor Volunteer Corps Ordinance. Let's look into the PDF file from the Korea Verband containing the testimonies of eight comfort women (link). Six of the eight testimonies describe some form of police or official involvement in the initial recruitment or abduction process.  Here is what Kim Bok-dong had to say about how she was recruited:

"I remember it was one day in the spring of 1941 when I was fifteen. A Japanese man in yellow clothes visited my house with a village-head and told my mother to send me to 'daishin tai' for the empire, since she had no son. Otherwise, he added, my family would be traitors and unable to live here. He also said that 'daishin tai' meant to go to work at a workshop producing army uniforms. He forced my mother to sign on the document. Despite my mother’s resistance, I ended up being drafted in this way."

On the one hand, if "daishin tai" refers to teishintai (挺身隊) - Labor Volunteer Corps - then her testimony seems to be consistent with a police representative serving her with a labor summons in accordance with the August 1944 ordinance. On the other hand, because Kim's account places the event in 1941, this seems inconsistent with recruitment under the August 1944 ordinance. There is a possibility that labor summons were already being served to Korean women as far back as 1941, and the August 1944 ordinance was merely formalizing a practice that had already been used on an informal basis.

According to another former Korean comfort woman, Ahn Jeomsun, calling up unmarried Korean women for compulsory labor was already going on 1942, two years before the August 1944 ordinance. She testified that she was forced into sex work with the Imperial military after she responded to an announcement asking all unmarried girls in the neighborhood to gather together:

"The year came when I turned thirteen, and it was fall. At that time the Pacific War had been going on for a while. It was 1942. The head of the neighborhood organization made an anouncement over the loudspeaker, asking all unmarried girls from one age to another (I can't remember precisely) to meet in front of the Boksagol neighborhood rice mill. Mother heard the announcement, and suggested we go together to see what it was all about ... Besides the neighborhood people, there were Japanese soldiers in uniform, Japanese in civilian clothes, and other Koreans. Those girls were all being weighed on the rice scale one by one. Tall girls and healthy ones were being put in a truck. Japanese soldiers were putting the girls in the truck, lifting them up."

This is yet another clue that suggests that the August 1944 ordinance may have merely been formalizing practices that were already being used long before the ordinance was promulgated. 

The ordinance included exemptions for illness, disability, and women who were the “central support” of their household. Marriage also removed women from the category of “unmarried women” targeted by the ordinance. But for young girls, especially those aged 12 to 17, marriage was hardly a realistic or humane form of protection. The result was that unmarried Korean women and girls in the final years of Japanese colonial rule faced a greatly expanded risk of coercive state mobilization and sexual abuse, with refusal backed by criminal punishment.

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo), August 23, 1944

The Hands and Strength of Unmarried Women
Hearing from Vice Minister of Welfare Aikawa
Contents of the Labor Ordinance
Those Who Refuse Will Receive a Separate White Paper Conscription Order

[Telephone report from Tokyo] The Ministry of Welfare will promulgate the Women’s Labor Volunteer Corps Ordinance on August 23rd, and it will go into effect the same day. At this grave moment in the war situation, the production front, pressing forward in arms production, is powerfully calling for the hands of unmarried women.

At present, the nations at war are each carrying out thoroughgoing labor mobilization with the full force of the state. Germany has begun a total mobilization, sending even women up to the age of fifty into factories. Britain, at the same time as the outbreak of war, issued a conscription order covering women up to the age of forty. In the United States, large numbers of women are even being mobilized into the armed forces.

In all of these countries, mobilization is focused solely on labor capacity, and women are mobilized without distinction between housewives and daughters. However, under the Women’s Labor Ordinance now being promulgated, warm consideration is being given to the role of the “household,” and the order is limited only to women without spouses.

Under this ordinance, those who ignore the demands of the state and refuse mobilization will be issued a white paper employment order. For those who still do not comply, the final means of punishment, namely imprisonment or a fine, has also been prepared. We asked Vice Minister of Welfare Aikawa about the main points of this Labor Ordinance.

Question: Who will be subject to the Volunteer Corps?

Answer: Those registered under the National Vocational Ability Reporting Ordinance; in other words, unmarried women from the age of twelve through forty.

Question: From a legal standpoint, how does this differ from the Volunteer Corps up to now?

Answer: Until now, “corps” have been formed through government guidance and encouragement. This time, however, it will be done under an ordinance based on the National General Mobilization Act, so there will be strict penalties for those who evade or fail to comply without reason.

Question: Who will be excluded?

Answer: Military civilian employees of the Army and Navy; employees of government offices; employees of factories or workplaces under government control or designation; those engaged in general mobilization work, such as metal refining workers and agricultural personnel; those who form the central support of household life; and those who are sickly or disabled. The interpretation of “central support” refers to people who, according to sound social common sense, would reasonably be recognized as such. For example, it means someone whose mother has died or is seriously ill, and who is in fact acting in the place of the housewife.

Question: Under what circumstances will someone be released from the obligation?

Answer: For example, if her marriage arrangements are settled and she marries, if she develops an illness that makes her unable to endure labor, or if an elder sister who had been acting in the place of the housewife is no longer there and the person herself must take her place, then she will be released simply upon application.

Question: Until now, there have been people who had to join the Volunteer Corps while others did not, giving rise to a sense of unfairness. How will things be from now on?

Answer: First, a written Labor Volunteer Service Order will be handed over. Those who do not mobilize in response to it will then be given an “employment order.” Anyone who fails to obey that order will, under the National General Mobilization Act, be punished by imprisonment for up to one year or a fine of up to 1,000 yen. Also, depending on actual circumstances, women currently working at banks or companies of lower urgency may be ordered to join and mobilize with the women’s corps.

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo), April 22, 1944

Toward Proper Marriage
The Streets Are Flooded with Early-Marriage Couples

It is said that marriages have been increasing, but to what extent? Let us take a look at the marriage situation within the jurisdiction of the Dongdaemun Police Station since the Greater East Asia War began.

It is true that the number has been rising day by day. Looking at the figures, the Oriental Ceremonial Department handled 123 cases in fiscal 1942, 160 cases in fiscal 1943, and 102 cases from January of this year through April 20. The Donam-dong Beauty Ceremonial Department handled 48 cases in fiscal 1942, 86 cases in fiscal 1943, and already 82 cases from January of this year through April 20, nearly the same number as in the whole previous year. In each case, the increase this year has been sharp.

What deserves attention is that, until around this time last year, the marriage age was mostly 22/23 to 25/26 for men, and 19 to 21/22 for women. Since January of this year, however, the marriage age has fallen for both men and women. Many of the men are now 18/19 to 22/23, while among the women there are even extreme cases of 15- or 16-year-olds, with the majority being from 17/18 to 20 years old.

It is, of course, a happy thing to hold a proper wedding in line with the national policy of “give birth and multiply.” However, there is a sense that some are being carried along by rumors that, along with general conscription, women too will be conscripted, and are rushing into unnatural marriages in order to escape conscription. Since women will absolutely not be conscripted, the authorities are calling on the public to be careful and to hold proper marriages.

[Transcription]

京城日報 1944年8月23日

未婚女性の手と力
相川厚生次官に聴く
勤労令の内容
拒む者は別の白紙

【東京電話】厚生省では女子勤労挺身隊令を二十三日公布、即日実施することとなった。戦局の重大の秋に兵器生産に邁進する生産人は未婚女性の手を力強く呼び求めている。いま交戦各国はそれぞれ国を挙げ徹底的な勤労動員を断行。ドイツでは五十歳までの女子をも工場に送るという根こそぎ動員を開始。英国も開戦と同時に婦人四十歳までを含む徴用令を発布。米国では女子を軍隊にも多数出動している。

これらの国々の動員事情は何れも稼働ということにのみ主眼が置かれ、主婦と娘の区別なく動員されているが、この度公布される女子勤労令では『家庭』の役割を考慮して無配偶女子にのみに限るという温い配慮が払われている。

これには国の要請を無視して出動を拒む者には就職令出動の白紙が発生せられるが、これにも従わないものに対しては体刑か罰金に処するという最後手段の用意もあるというのがこの法令である。この勤労令の主なる点はどういうところかとの問に対して相川厚生次官に答えて貰おう。

問：どういうものが挺身隊の対象となるか。

答：国民職業能力申告令による国民登録者すなわち満十二歳以上四十歳までの無配偶女子である。

問：これまでの挺身隊とは法律の上からみてどう違うか。

答：従来は政府の指導奨励によって『隊』を作って来たが、こんどは国家総動員法に基く法令によることになったので、理由なく忌避したり応じない者には強い罰則がある。

問：どういうものが除外されるか。

答：陸海軍軍属、官衙、政府管理あるいは指定の工場、事業場の従業員、金属製錬業や農業要員などの総動員業務に従事している者、および家庭生活の根軸となっている者および病弱、不具者などである。『根軸』の解釈は円満な社会通念で無理もないと思われる人で、例えば母親が死亡あるいは重病で当人が事実上主婦代りをしているような者を指す。

問：どういう時に解除されるか。

答：たとえば当人の縁談が整い結婚するとか勤労に耐えないような病状になった時、あるいは家庭の主婦代りを勤めていた姉がいなくなり当人がこれに代るような時は願出により簡単に解除される。

問：いまでは挺身隊に加わらなければならない者があり、不公平の向があったが、これからはどうか。

答：最初挺身勤労令書の白紙が渡され、それに出動しない者には『就職令書』が追って渡され、この命令に従わない者には総動員法により一年以下の懲役あるいは一千円以下の罰金に処せられる。又緊要度の低い銀行会社に現に働いている者は実情によっては女子隊に加入出動するように命ずる時もある。

京城日報 1944年4月22日

正当な結婚へ
街は早婚組の氾濫

結婚が増えて来たというが、どの程度だろう。ここに大東亜戦後の東大門署管内の結婚状況を覗いてみよう。日増しに増加の一途を辿っているのは事実だが、件数で調べて見ると東洋礼式部は十七年度が百二十三件、十八年度が百六十件、本年正月から四月二十日までに百二件に達している。敦岩町美容礼式部が十七年度には四十八件、十八年度は八十六件、本年正月から昨二十日までがすでに前年一ヶ年間の件数と略同数の八十二件で何れも本年に入り激増を示している。

注目すべき点は去年の今頃までの婚姻年齢は男は二十二、三才から二十五、六才で、女は十九才から二十一、二才までが殆ど大部分であったが今年一月以来は結婚年齢が男女ともに低下し男は十八、九才から二十二、三才の者が多く女は甚だしいのは十五、六才の者もあり大半は十七、八才から二十才までの者という現状である。

”生めよ殖せよ”の国策の線に沿うし正当な結婚を挙げるのはお目出たいが、一般徴用に伴い女子にも徴用があるという噂に乗ぜられて徴用をまぬかれようと不自然な結婚を急ぐ感があるので女子は絶対に徴用せぬから正しき結婚を挙げるよう一般の注意を要望している。

Source: Digital Newspaper Archive, National Library of Korea

See also:

• Terrified by rumors of forced labor conscription under the Imperial Army, young Korean women rushed into marriages to escape, prompting officials to hold April 1944 press conference to deny and deflect (link)
• ‘Selfless’ Imperial Japanese policeman visits pregnant Korean mother daily and delivers her baby after forcing her husband into Imperial war service: a 1945 ‘heartwarming’ propaganda tale (link)
• Koreans tried to bribe their way out of Imperial Japan’s forced labor conscription, but patriotic student informants turned them in (June 1945) (link)
• Testimonies of former Comfort Women from Korea Verband (link)

Another part of a propaganda interview of Korean comfort women who returned from a whirlwind 1943 Japan tour visiting wounded Imperial Japanese soldiers, and one of the comfort women retired to "live life without shame as a sister and mother of splendid soldiers of the Korean peninsula"

(Translation)

Gyeongseong Ilbo　(Keijo Nippo) August 14, 1943

A chorus of sincerity in response to gratitude

Receiving encouragement from the heroes in white

Performing arts comfort team

Roundtable discussion and report following their return

Keijo Nippo reporter: It seems that you went to Tokyo after that. What was your impression of wartime Tokyo?

Gil Song-ja (길송자/吉松子): I was amazed at how well Tokyo regulated its city illumination. On the night we arrived, being country bumpkins, we had no idea what we were getting ourselves into, and it was so dark that we wouldn't have known if our noses were being pinched. The seriousness of the air-raid drills touched our hearts so much that it made us ashamed of what we were doing. All the girls wore Monpe work pants, which were very different from those worn in Korea and more suitable for practical use. We really felt that we needed to wear them too. They were not the thin, flimsy Monpe work pants that we wear here in Korea, but they were made of simple cut fabric, and we really felt that our work pants had to be like that.

Park Sun-sil (박순실/朴淳實): We were overcome by the greatness of Japan proper and the mental strength of the people of Japan proper, as we were directly confronted by the natural scenery as well as by the men and women who lived there, who were far better people than we were. In Tokyo, Osaka, and Kyushu, we were treated like true sisters. Even the upper-class ladies were full of kindness through their humble words and mannerisms. We felt a beauty that we could never see on the Korean peninsula, and we learned about the strength of the children who grew up there. On the one hand, they are kind, but on the other hand, they are also very strong. We were deeply moved by the training activities of the women's associations and secondary school students, and we were deeply convinced that Japan had to be a strong country if they could do this so well. We strongly felt that Korean women should definitely learn from them.

Keijo Nippo reporter: You must have been deeply moved when you went to many hospitals for comfort visits.

Kim Wol (김월/金月): At every hospital, we would go around to greet seriously injured patients before the performances start. When we finished our greetings at the First Army Hospital, a soldier came to us and encouraged us saying, "I hear that conscription has finally been established on the Korean peninsula. Congratulations! We are relieved to hear that. Please do your best. We're counting on you, we're counting on you..." At that time, we became firmly determined to completely live out our lives strongly as military women.

Kim Jeon-wang (김전왕/金田旺): I believe it was at the Second Army Hospital that the Yomiuri newspaper photography team visited us. As usual, we were visiting patients in the hospital wards, and when we saw one of the patients smiling at us despite the pain of his serious injuries, we were all moved to tears and encouraged by his smile. A patient who could not get up said, "I'm fine, I'm fine," as he turned his head and waved his hand still lying on his back. We met Mr. Ōyama, who was a Korean volunteer soldier, and we were all sincerely happy to see that he was in such good spirits, not at all different from the soldiers of Japan proper. When we greeted Mr. Ōyama saying, "we will serve our nation rising up 25 million strong in the Korean peninsula", Mr. Ōyama's voice and body trembled as he responded with just one phrase, "I'm counting on you".

Yoo San-hong (유산홍/劉山紅): I think that happened at a hospital in Hiroshima. I remember a soldier wearing white who surprised me by suddenly calling out to me, "Sister...." He said to me with the same friendliness that one would show to one's siblings, "Even after you return to Korea, please do your utmost best for the nation. If I go back to the war zone, I will surely tell stories about your heartfelt comfort to my war comrades," whereupon I bowed my head.

Kim Geum-hong (김금홍/金錦紅): At the Red Cross Hospital in Tokyo, there was an isolation room where patients were not allowed to receive comfort during normal hours. The regulations did not allow it, but we were hoping that we could do it here as well for these patients. We asked them if we could give these people comfort visits. When we went to the hospital rooms, we found that all the windows in the hallways had been opened, and there were people lying on bed chairs and in wicker chairs looking out of the windows, and many nurses were lined up behind them.

It was a hot day in the courtyard, but we were about to leave after singing the Arirang chorus and the Patriotic March with all our hearts when we suddenly saw a brave warrior who could not even come to the window sill, borrowing a mirror from a nurse in the room and looking at our reflection. When we saw this, we were deeply moved. We had already said our goodbyes, but we felt that we could not leave just yet, so we asked the branch manager, "Excuse me, but please let us sing one more time", and then we sincerely sang the poem "Outside the city of Jinzhou".

Afterwards, everyone outside also sang the "Baektu Mountain Song" and various other songs before we returned home. We were truly moved by the words of the head nurse who later told the branch manager, "The soldiers are all grateful to you for singing with such sincerity. As we stood by and watched, we could understand why everyone sang so willingly even after the farewell greetings had already been made. I believe that ties between Japan proper and Korea will be strengthened when hard and fast principles are set aside, and our hearts are in contact with one other".

[Photo: The patriotic march sung by the comfort team at the Kokura Army Hospital, censored by the Shimonoseki Fortress Command Headquarters].

Source: https://www.archive.org/details/kjnp-1943-08-14

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) August 18, 1943

Here are the patriotic Kisaeng

Beautiful stories about the changes in the members of the performing arts comfort team

Dispatch from Keijo Nippo head office

Impressed by the fighting spirit in Japan proper

At the time, the head office of Keijo Nippo organized a "performing arts comfort team" composed of Korean kisaeng. The group visited army and navy hospitals in various parts of the country, offering heartfelt comfort to the brave warriors in white. One of the members, Ms. Yoshiko Kaneshiro (22), also named Ms. Kim Gang-seok (김강석/金剛石), a kisaeng of the Sanwa Kenban Agency at 107 Hunjeong-dong (훈정동/薫井洞), Jongno-gu, was deeply moved by the divine appearance of the fighting women of Japan proper who were working hard towards finishing the Holy War. She said, "I cannot stand still. I will become a serious woman on the war front and work hard for the sake of the nation". On August 17th, she reported to the Jongno Police Station and surrendered her four-and-a-half-year life as a 'red light' worker.

She submitted a notice of abandonment of the kisaeng trade, saying "Starting today, I will lead a serious life". At the same time, she deposited 100 yen in gold to the head office as consolation money for the Imperial military in commemoration of her giving up the kisaeng trade. She renewed her firm resolve to be an Imperial woman. Ms. Kaneshiro spoke of her joy at the beginning of her new life as follows [Photo: Ms. Kaneshiro].

"I have recently visited the wounded and sick soldiers of the Imperial Military in Japan proper through the arrangement of your company. I was shown the true image of the fighting Imperial Nation, and taught the attitude of an Imperial woman. As a Korean woman, I was able to learn a great deal. In this critical time when we have to eat or be eaten, I continued the trip saddened that we had to live smiling under the 'red light' as kisaeng putting on a face that would have been more appropriate for more normal times, not able to do a thing to help our nation. After returning home to Korea safely, I reconsidered my life and decided to part with my life as a kisaeng and become a respectable family woman, so that I could send out more robust and loyal soldiers of His Majesty from the Korean peninsula, and I have done the necessary paperwork today. From now on, I will keep this inspiration in mind with the determination to live my life without shame as a sister and mother of splendid soldiers of the Korean peninsula. This is a small amount of money, but it is a part of the cost of canceling the reception that was to have been held to commemorate my abandonment of the kisaeng trade, which had been made possible by the generosity of our guests. Please use this money for the sake of the wounded soldiers who were infinitely pleased with our humble Korean performances."

Source: https://www.archive.org/details/kjnp-1943-08-18

(End Translation)

Notes:

The above articles are about a "performing arts comfort team" of 14 Korean comfort women, or kisaeng, who went to Japan in July and August 1943 to sing, dance, and "comfort" wounded Imperial Japanese soldiers in Japan. 

Kisaeng were Korean female entertainers who sang, danced, played musical instruments and wrote poems to entertain upper-class men. In earlier times, their work did not necessarily always involve sexual service, but during Japanese colonial rule of Korea, they were more closely associated with sex work. By the 1940s, the vast majority were involved in prostitution. 

I previously posted three other posts on this blog about this comfort team under these titles:

1.    Korean comfort women in a "performing arts comfort team" embarked on whirlwind July-August 1943 Japan tour visiting wounded Imperial Japanese soldiers

2.    Korean comfort women interviewed after whirlwind 1943 Japan tour visiting wounded Imperial Japanese soldiers who 'showed us again and again with their bodies, not with their words, that Japan and Korea were to be unified as one' and 'we were often moved to tears because we did not feel worthy'

3.    1943 editorial calls for Korean language to be wiped out, says Korean comfort women were touched by the noble appearance and hearts of the Imperial Japanese soldiers, and the women offered heartfelt comfort in response as their chests filled with excitement, their sincere hearts touching each other

The August 14th article precedes the August 15th article which I translated earlier under the second previous post. The August 14th article seems like it continues from a previous article, which I have not been able to find so far.

The August 18th article is notable, in that it reveals a slight hint that at least one of the comfort woman was less than happy and even shameful about her line of work, as she announces her intention to retire to "live life without shame as a sister and mother of splendid soldiers of the Korean peninsula". The propaganda articles reveal a tension between the impulse to portray the comfort women's service as patriotic and honorable, and the contradictory impulse to portray the comfort women's work as shameful. The same contradictory impulses can still be seen among Japanese historical revisionists today who deny that comfort women were coerced and even applaud them for their 'service', but at the same time deny their suffering and flippantly dismiss them as willing prostitutes. The 1943 editorial (see above link number 3) attempts to reconcile these contradictory impulses by arguing that the comfort women's service was a sort of initiation rite to turn these comfort women into true Imperial Japanese women, and suggests that this 'initiation rite' could be used more widely to assimilate more Korean women into Imperial Japan.

The First Army Hospital refers to what is now the National Center for Global Health and Medicine (NCGM) in Tokyo.

The Second Army Hospital, where the comfort team met Mr. Ōyama the Korean volunteer soldier, was in Hiroshima, and it was wiped out in the atomic bombing of Hiroshima on August 6, 1945. Today, there is a memorial to the former hospital at the landmark: 広島第二陸軍病院跡 (Google map link).

The poem "Outside the city of Jinzhou (金州城外)" (YouTube video of poem recitation: https://youtu.be/3_R2VkZhke0) is about the Battle of Nanshan which was fought between Japanese and Russian soldiers on the southern tip of Liaoning peninsula in 1904 during the Russo-Japanese War.

Baektu Mountain Song (白頭山節) (YouTube video of song: https://youtu.be/-p3H32BXcq4) refers to a Japanese folk song about Baektu Mountain which may be an adaptation of a Korean folk song. 

Kenban Agency (券番) refers to a management agency which manages the kisaeng and their performance fees. The Kenban agency for Kim Gang-seok was located at 107 Hunjeong-dong and is shown on this map of Seoul from 1933:

Today, the agency is gone, and the former location is now a part of Jongmyo Plaza Park.

(Transcriptions)

京城日報　1943年8月14日

感謝に応え真心の合唱

白衣の勇士から逆に激励受く

芸能慰問隊

帰還報告座談会

本社側：それから東京に廻られたようでしたが、戦時下に於ける東京をどんな風にお感じになりましたか。

吉松子：何と申しても灯火管制の行き届いているのには驚きました。着いた夜など田舎者の私共は勝手が知れませず鼻をつままれても分からぬ位でした。それから防空訓練の真剣さには胸をうたれる思いで私共のやっていましたことが今更恥ずかしいのです。女子はみんなモンペで、このモンペが半島のそれとはおよそ違った実用向きのものなんです。あれでなければいけないなとつくづく感じました。こっちで使うペラペラした薄いモンペ等ではなく、質素な切地で作ったものをはいていましたが、実際あれでなくてはならないと思いました。

朴淳實：自然の風物からも、そこに住まう男からも女からも、私共とは桁はずれに良く出来た人達をじかに見せつけられて内地の偉大さ、内地人の精神力に打ち負かされました。東京でも大阪でも九州でも全く真の姉妹のように扱って戴きました。上流婦人でも謙遜な言葉や物腰から親切心が溢れていて、半島では到底見ることの出来ない美しさを感じ此処に育つ児等の強さを知ることが出来ました。優しい反面にまだ非常に強くもあり、婦人団体や中等学生の錬成の様子を見まして、あれだけやれば日本は強い筈だと深く胸を打たれました。半島女性も是非学ばなければならぬとつくづく考えました。

本社側：沢山の病院を慰問して随分胸をうたれたこともおありでしょう。

金月：どこの病院でも慰問演芸開演前に重傷患者のために挨拶に廻るのです。第一陸軍病院で挨拶を終ると一人の兵隊さんが訪ねて下さいまして、『半島にも愈々徴兵制が布かれたそうですね。お目出度う。自分達もそれで安心した。しっかりやって下さい。頼みます、頼みます．．．』と逆に激励されました。この時には全く軍国の女性として強く生き抜かねば相済まないと堅く決意しました。

金田旺：読売の写真班が来られたのは確か第二陸軍病院だったでしょうね。例によって病棟に患者さんをお見舞いしたら重傷の痛みをこらえて苦しい中からニッコリ笑って応えて下さったのには一同感極まって泣き、逆に激励されました。起てない人が『元気だ、元気だ』と云って仰向いた儘手を振って見せました。此処で半島志願兵出身の大山さんに会いましたが、内地の兵士とちっとも変わりなく、元気な御様子に一同心から嬉しく『半島二千五百万民は総起ちとなって御国の為に奉公致します』と挨拶すれば大山さんは只一言『頼みます』と声も体もふるわせていられました。

劉山紅：あれは広島の病院でしたかしら。白衣の兵隊さんから『姉さん．．．』と突然呼び懸けられたのには面喰いました。『朝鮮に帰られても御国の為にウンと頑張って下さいよ。皆さんの真心籠る慰問の話は自分が再び戦地へ行ったら必ず戦友へ語って聞かせますよ』と兄妹同様の親しさで呼び懸けて下さるのです。私は頭が下りました。

金錦紅：東京の赤十字病院では平素慰問を受けられない隔離病室がありました。規則では許されないが、ここでもやって貰えたらというお話です。私共はこういう人達にこそ慰問をさせて戴きたいとお願いしました。病室へ行って見ますと廊下の窓の戸を全部外して寝椅子に横っている人、籐椅子によっている人達が窓から顔を出して居られ、その後の方には沢山の看護婦さんが並んで居られました。

この中庭で私共は暑い日でしたが並んでアリランの合唱と愛国行進曲を心から歌って帰ろうとしますと、ふと私共の眼に映ったのは窓辺にも出て来られない勇士の方が部屋の中で看護婦さんから鏡を借りまして、私達の姿を写しているのです。私達はこれを見るとハット胸を打たれたのです。もうお別れの挨拶の済んだ後でしたが、どうしてもこの儘帰れないという気持ちになりまして、支社長さんに『すみませんが是非もう一度だけ歌わして下さい』といって『金州城外』の詩吟を真心こめて吟詠しました。

それから外の皆さんも白頭山節やその外色々歌って帰りましたが、後で支社長さんに『ほんとに真心から歌って戴いた事を兵隊さんは皆感謝しています。私共も傍らで見ていまして、もう挨拶が済んだ後にも拘わらず皆さんが進んで歌って呉れた心持がよく分かります。むずかしい理屈よりお互いの心と心の触れ合う時に内地と朝鮮とが固く結ばれるのだと思います』と婦長さんが申されたそうですが、私達はあの時ほんとうに心に打たれるものがあったのです。

【写真＝小倉陸軍病院における慰問隊の愛国行進曲合唱＝下関要塞司令部検閲済み】

京城日報　1943年8月18日

ここに愛国妓生あり

芸能慰問隊員の転向美談

本社派遣

戦う内地に感激

さきに本社では半島妓生からなる”芸能慰問隊”を組織。内地各地の陸海軍病院に白衣の勇士を心から慰問。予想以上の好評を博してこのほど帰鮮したが、隊員のうち三和券番妓生鐘路区薫井町一〇七金剛石こと金城淑子（二二）さんは内地慰問中、戦う内地婦人達の聖戦完遂に向かって逞しく働いている聖なる姿に痛く心を打たれ、”わたしもじっとしてはおられない。真面目な銃後の女性となって御国のため一生懸命働きます”と過去四年有半の紅灯生活をかなぐり捨てて、十七日鐘路署に出頭。

”きょうからわたしも真面目な生活を営みます”と芸妓廃業届を提出する一方、妓生廃業を記念して金百円を本社へ皇軍慰問金として寄託。皇国女性の固き覚悟を新たにした。金城さんは新しい生活の門出の喜びを次のように語る【写真＝金城さん】

『私はこのたび貴社の御計りで内地の皇軍傷病兵の慰問を行いました。私は戦う皇国の真姿を見せていただき、そして皇国婦女の態度を教えられ、半島女性としてこのうえもない勉強をさせていただきました。喰うか喰われるかといわれるこの重大な時局に私達は何一つ御国のため役立つこともなく、却って非時局的な面で妓生なるが故に紅灯の下に笑いながら暮さねばならないことを一人悲しみながら旅を続けたのでございます。無事に帰鮮致しまして、自分の生活を考えなおし、私共の半島から、より逞しい、より忠良な陛下の兵隊を送り出すため妓生生活と別れて立派な家族婦人に帰ることを決心し、今日その手続きをとりました。今後はこのたび感激を肝に銘じて天晴れ半島出身兵士の姉としてまた母として恥ずかしくない生活を営む覚悟でございます。誠にこれは些少ですが、妓生廃業に際しまして皆さんからの因襲で行われていました廃業披露宴会を取り止めた費用の一部でございます。私共は拙い半島演芸を限りなく御喜び下さった傷痍軍人のために御処理願います』

Korean comfort women in a "performing arts comfort team" embark on whirlwind July-August 1943 Japan tour visiting wounded Imperial Japanese soldiers

 

There was a "performing arts comfort team" of 14 Korean comfort women who went to Japan in July and August 1943 to sing, dance, and "comfort" wounded Imperial Japanese soldiers in Japan. I previously posted two articles from August 1943 on this subreddit about this comfort team, one (Korean comfort women interviewed after whirlwind 1943 Japan tour) was an interview with the comfort women after they returned to Korea from this trip, and another (1943 editorial calls for Korean language to be wiped out) was a government policy editorial saying that this comfort team demonstrated that these Korean women learned Japanese so well because they interacted with Imperial Japanese soldiers as comfort women, so this lesson should be applied in all of Korea so as to "directly bump sincere hearts with each other". 

I've also added some links to Youtube videos that I found of the songs and dances that they performed. Most appear to be Japanese folk songs, but their repertoire also includes some Korean songs in a slight nod to their Korean heritage. Judging from the music selection, I'm thinking these Korean comfort women must have had very specialized music instructors from Japan come to Korea to teach them these very regional Japanese folk songs and dances.

(Translation)

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo), July 14, 1943

Giving comfort singing Doraji Taryeong

Korean performing arts comfort team working hard

Burning with heroic determination to serve again, the "Korean performing arts comfort team of the Army and Navy Hospital in Japan proper", organized by the head office of this newspaper and consisting of 14 members including Kim Geum-hong (김금홍/金錦紅), is to depart Seoul Station on the morning of July 14th for Japan proper. By comforting the brave soldiers in white who are single-mindedly focused on recuperation, the comfort team expresses their deepest gratitude to their fellow compatriots for their immense trust and affection toward the Korean peninsula. Prior to their departure, at a little after 2:00 p.m. on the afternoon of the 13th, they visited the Korea Army guided by Mr. Suzuki, Director of the Planning Department of the Head Office of this newspaper. After giving a departure speech to Mr. Kuramo, Director of the News Department, they immediately went to the main hospital of Yongsan Seoul Army Hospital to visit the injured soldiers and held a "performing arts comfort party" rich with the sentiments of the Korean peninsula in the Patriotic Hall in front of 200 soldiers in white.

Following the opening address by the group director Mr. Suzuki, Kim Jeon-wang (김전왕/金田旺) spoke on behalf of the entire group by saying, "We have decided to comfort the wounded soldiers of the Imperial Japanese Army and Navy with our humble performances as a way of thanking our compatriots in Japan for their kindness on the eve of the glorious conscription order. Today, instead of a departure address, we will hold a performance in front of you, and although we are not sure if we will be able to comfort you all, we will do our best. We are reminded of the fact that we have been your sisters in the front lines as members of the glorious Imperial Army, and we are all filled with joy standing in front of you all and giving you comfort. We pray non-stop that you will all recover completely and that the day of your re-entry into the service will come sooner than expected", giving her kind and sincere opening speech in fluent Japanese. Then the group started the performance.

All the performers, dressed in their traditional Korean clothes, sang "Arirang", a well-known Korean folk song. The beautiful melody of the ancient folk songs of the Korean peninsula thrilled the white-robed warriors to their hearts' content, and the Doraji Taryeong, a dance unique to the Korean peninsula, was performed with graceful Korean-inspired dance moves. The audience gave thunderous applauses to "Yasugi-bushi (安来節)" and "the Mother of Kudan (九段の母)" performed by Kim Geum-hong (김금홍/金錦紅).

The comic storytelling of the "New Family Scene" brought a whirlwind of laughter, followed by enthusiastic performances of "Sado Okesa (佐渡おけさ)" and "Night in Suzhou (蘇州の夜)", and everyone sang a lively rendition of the "Patriotic March (愛国行進曲)", bringing the comfort performance to a close at 3:30 p.m. [Photo: The performing arts comfort party]

Source: https://www.archive.org/details/kjnp-1943-07-14

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo), July 15, 1943

A trip to comfort the brave wounded soldiers.

Performing arts team departed for Japan proper this morning

After the send-off party and the visit to the Army Hospital to comfort the wounded soldiers on July 13th, the 14 members of the "Korean performing arts comfort team of the Army and Navy Hospital in Japan proper", organized by the head office of this newspaper and led by Kim Geum-hong (김금홍/金錦紅), visited Seoul at 8:00 a.m. on July 14th to make a departure speech, and then departed from Seoul Station at 10:05 a.m. The team members were in high spirits as they were seen off by many executives of the head office of this newspaper as well as friends and relatives, and they made their way onto the "Nozomi" train, with the crimson-red circle Hinomaru insignia on the left sides of their chests shining brightly to protect them on their 24-day trip. They left waving their hands in the air and saying, "See you later! We'll do our best". Kim Geum-hong (김금홍/金錦紅), a member of the group, spoke in clear Japanese recounting the excitement of the departure.

"We are not used to this kind of trip, so we are all talking to each other about trying to compose ourselves and avoiding any trouble as much as possible. If the songs and dances of inexperienced people like us can offer even a little comfort to the white-robed warriors in Japan proper, we will be very happy. We will do our best with all our hearts. Most of the members in this group are excited because it will be the first time for them to visit Japan proper. I am also very grateful that we will be able to pay homage to the Imperial Grand Shrine at Ise and other precious places, and to see the beautiful Mount Fuji". [Photo: the Korean performing arts comfort team departing Seoul Station]

Source: https://www.archive.org/details/kjnp-1943-07-15

Song Links:

Arirang Dance: https://youtu.be/Bms4dx9ayhQ

Doraji Taryeong: https://youtu.be/o36IFUfTCMg

Yasugi-bushi: https://youtu.be/e3eMaefRU1s

Mother of Kudan: https://youtu.be/F8kVbUNsOs0

Sado Okesa: https://youtu.be/qYt7ax54eXI

Night in Suzhou: https://youtu.be/4HB-kzjWc8U

Patriotic March: https://youtu.be/2CpcztEOSrs

(Transcription)

京城日報　1943年7月14日

トラジで慰める

張切る半島芸能慰問団

雄々しくも再起奉公の決意に燃え、只管療養に専念する白衣の勇士の慰問を通じて内地同胞の我が半島に寄せる絶大の信頼と厚情に満腔の感謝を表する本社主催『内地陸海軍病院半島芸能慰問団』一行金錦紅さん以下十四名は愈々十四日朝京城駅発、一路内地に向かうが、晴れの出発に先立って十三日午後二時過ぎ、団長鈴木本社企画部長に引率されて朝鮮軍を訪れ、倉茂報道部長に出発の挨拶を述べたのち、傷兵慰問のため直ちに龍山京城陸軍病院本院に向い、愛国館で白衣勇士二百名を前に半島情緒を豊かに盛った『芸能慰問会』を開催した。

鈴木慰問隊長の挨拶に次いで、金田旺さんが一同を代表して『輝かしい徴兵制を目睫に控えて内地同胞の方々にお礼の意味で陸海軍傷兵を私達の拙い芸でお慰めすることになりました。本日は出発の挨拶に代えて皆様の前で慰問芸能会を開かせて戴きますが、果して皆様をお慰め出来るか心配ですが、一同ははり切って慰問致します。私達同胞が栄えの皇軍の一員として皆様の弟となって前線に起ったことに思いを致し、こうして皆様の前に立って慰問することに私達一同は無上の喜びに胸一ぱいです。何卒全快されて再起奉公の日一日も早からんことを祈って止みません』と優しい真心こもる開会の言葉を流暢な国語で述べ、それより演芸に移った。

楚々とした朝鮮服に着替えた全員はお馴染みの”アリラン”を斉唱。美しい半島古来の民謡の旋律に白衣の勇士を心ゆくまで陶然とさせ、半島独特の舞踊トラジでは優雅な半島情緒纏綿とした踊りを繰展げる。金錦紅さんの十八番”安来節”、”九段の母”には一同割れるような拍手を送る。

漫談新家庭風景はドット爆笑の渦を巻かせ、かくて”佐渡おけさ”、”蘇州の夜”など熱演があり、全員愛国行進曲を活発に斉唱、同三時半心からなる慰問演芸の幕を閉じた。【写真＝同慰問演芸会】

京城日報　1943年7月15日

勇躍傷兵慰問の旅へ

芸能一団行、けさ内地へ出発

十三日壮行会、陸軍病院傷兵慰問を終えた本社主催”内地陸海軍病院半島芸能慰問団”一行金錦紅さん以下十四名は鈴木団長に引率され、十四日午前八時本府を訪問して出発の挨拶を行い、同十時五分京城駅発”のぞみ”で本社関係幹部並びに友人縁故者など多数の見送りを受け、勇躍壮途に上がったが、団員一行は左胸に二十四日間の慰問の旅を守護する如く耀く真紅の『日の丸』の胸章も晴れやかに展望者に現れ、”ではいって参ります、しっかりやってまいります”と手を打ち振りながら出発した。一行中の金田旺さんは、その出発の感激の中にハッキリとした国語で語った。

「慣れない旅ですが、皆心を引き緊めてできるだけ御厄介をかけないように努めましょうとお互い話し合っています。私たちのような未熟なものの歌や踊りがもし内地の白衣の勇士の方々を些かでもお慰め申しあげることが出来ますれば、こんな嬉しいことはありません。真心をこめてやって参ります。それから一行の中には内地行きは初めての方が大部分ですので、皆さん胸をワクワクさせています。それに伊勢の皇大神宮初め尊い御ところにお詣り出来ますことや、綺麗な富士山をみることの出来ますことを心から感謝いたして居ります」【写真＝京城駅出発の半島芸能慰問団】

Korean comfort women interviewed after whirlwind 1943 Japan tour visiting wounded Imperial Japanese soldiers who 'showed us again and again with their bodies, not with their words, that Japan and Korea were to be unified as one' and 'we were often moved to tears because we did not feel worthy'

 

Notes: This article contains an interview with the Korean comfort women who were part of a 'comfort team' which went on a whirlwind tour of Japan in 1943 visiting Imperial Japanese soldiers throughout the country. I highly recommend reading the related 'wipe out the Korean language' editorial, which I posted last month. This notorious editorial essentially says, to paraphrase, "These comfort women were not the brightest or the best educated, but look at how well they learned Japanese once they served Imperial Japanese soldiers! We should expand this out to all of Korea, so Korean women can learn Japanese faster." 

This is the horrific truth that almost no one mentions about Korean comfort women for some reason - their sexual exploitation was just a trial run as part of a much larger plan to wipe out the Korean language and ethnic identity and thoroughly instill the Japanese language and culture in all of Korea. The network of concentration camps for the young Korean girls was also going to be greatly expanded. The model of linguistic and cultural assimilation carried out in Korea was to be eventually replicated in all other territories occupied by the Imperial Japanese military. The only thing that prevented this grand plan from being carried out in its entirety was defeat in World War II. 

There is an editorial which I posted under the title, Editorial says the unity of god and man realized by the Japanese Imperial Way cannot be found anywhere else in the world, so Imperial Japan must 'turn the world into a single realm, let all nations take their places, and let all people rest in peace' starting with the colonization of Korea. It essentially says that the model of governance developed in Korea will be exported to all parts of the world that are occupied by the Imperial Japanese military. I won't link it here, because it contains some hateful language that led to me being banned from the r/badphilosophy subreddit, despite previously posting other Imperial Japanese editorials without any problems - apparently the content was so disturbing and distressing that the mods decided to ban me. If you still want to read it, you can find it on this blog by going to the 'philosophy' label. 

This article refers to Kisaeng, or Korean female entertainers who sing, dance, play musical instruments and write poems to entertain upper-class men. In earlier times, their work did not necessarily always involve sexual service, but during Japanese colonial rule of Korea, they were more closely associated with sex work. By the 1940s, the vast majority were involved in prostitution. One prominent former Korean comfort woman, Kim Hak-soon, went to a Kisaeng school before her abusive father took her to China to find her a job. That was where she was detained by Imperial Japanese authorities and then forced to work as a comfort woman for the Imperial Japanese military. 

This article is also significant in that Imperial Japan proudly and shamelessly publicized the fact that its soldiers were seeing comfort women. In fact, it celebrates the encounters between the Imperial Japanese soldiers and the comfort women as happy encounters. To an outsider who knows about the war crimes and atrocities committed by the Imperial Japanese military, it may sound patently absurd and delusional, but sadly enough, there are still Japanese people in prominent positions of power in the Japanese government, businesses, and universities who still believe this unbelievable propaganda. I have described this intractable problem in a long essay here.

This article mentions the daily 7 am and 12 noon prayers that all Koreans in the Korean peninsula had to participate in. There were usually loud sirens marking those two times of the day, and you had to immediately stop what you were doing and perform the prayers. The 7 am Kyūjō Yōhai ritual (宮城遥拝) involved bowing several times in the direction of the Imperial Palace in Tokyo while standing, almost reminiscent of the Muslim salah prayer in the qibla direction of Mecca. The noon prayer was a moment of silence in honor of the Imperial Japanese soldiers.

(Translation)

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijō Nippō), August 15, 1943

Mother and son have a good time together

Heart-struck by the pure innocence of the heroes in white

A round-table discussion on the return of the performing arts comfort team

Moon Young-ja (문영자/文英子): "We were made to feel that the soldiers were really great men. The reason for this is that they showed us again and again with their bodies, not with their words, that Japan and Korea were to be unified as one. The pure and frank soldiers thanked us from the bottom of their hearts when we comforted them in Korean clothes, and they vowed to serve us again. We were often moved to tears because we did not feel worthy. It became clear to us why our heroes are the strongest in the world on the battlefield.

We, too, were made to realize that this was a 'divine country', and we were given a silent reminder that, soon, the Korean peninsula was also going to do its part on the home front. We saw a group of soldiers and their mothers at the Red Cross Hospital, where they were to be photographed after the comfort visit. One seriously wounded man said, 'I really want to join in,' and he invited an elderly woman who looked like his mother to go join him in the photo shoot, and they looked very satisfied. According to what we heard, the brave warrior had written to his mother from the distant countryside to invite her to come to the event, and he had been looking forward to it for several days, counting down the days with his fingers. Knowing what had happened, we were all touched by the news."

Kim Sook-gyeong (김숙경/金淑瓊): "It was twelve o'clock at night when we arrived in Hiroshima, and everyone was very tired. Our manager, Kim Geum-hong (김금홍/金錦紅), collapsed due to her chronic beriberi disease. However, she insisted on carrying on and forcing herself to perform by giving herself an injection, saying that she couldn't take a break seeing just how happy the soldiers were. But we implored her to take a break, since we could all work together to compensate for her absence, and she relented and took a break. That was how we all felt."

Kim Gang-chun (김강춘/金剛春): "I was completely pessimistic when I was asked what kinds of performances a kisaeng does, but once the performance was over, my attitude suddenly changed as I was inundated with soldiers holding autograph books (laughter). At times like these, I became happy and felt that it was worth it. In Shimonoseki, a soldier with a limp said, 'Thank you so much for today, please drink a little of this...' and offered us two bottles of Homare Sake. We tried refusing this sincere gift several times, but eventually we accepted it."

Kim Jeon-wang (김전왕/金田旺): "As I mentioned earlier, this was my third time in Japan proper, but it was my first time visiting a Shinto shrine. When I stepped into the shrine, I felt that I was touched by the nobility and beauty of Japan. I couldn't help but think that Japan is a divine country and that it is natural for strong soldiers to be born there, so we were compelled to adopt a more serious attitude. We Koreans, who have a low level of spiritual life, felt inadequate and ashamed of ourselves everywhere we went. We were determined to become strong and respectable mothers as soon as possible and raise our children to succeed us in the next generation. I have no parents or siblings, and if circumstances allow, I would like to become a volunteer battlefield nurse in the future."

Kim Wol (김월/金月): "When I came to Japan proper, I noticed something strange. In Korea, we pray at 7:00 a.m. bowing to the Emperor's palace in the Kyūjō Yōhai ritual, and at noon, we hold a silent prayer for the Imperial Japanese troops, but this is not the case in Japan proper. I wondered why. However, I gradually came to understand the reason. There are shrines all over Japan, and people worship at them with reverence in the morning and evening. You can even see them from the windows of the train.

This is why the people of Japan proper know that the gods are always with them, and they don't have to worship at set times like in Korea. I felt that we Koreans need to move forward to the point where we are always living with the gods in our daily lives."

Ahn Chun-il (안춘일/安春一): "When we went to a hospital in Japan proper, we saw women who were not nurses washing the soiled clothes of the soldiers. Asking around, we learned that there was a variety of women's groups performing labor service. We also began to feel like going to some hospital and helping out."

Keijō Nippō Reporter: "I see. I'm sure you've made yourselves mentally prepared as Korean women in a variety of ways."

Kim Geum-hong (김금홍/金錦紅): "I am amazed at how gentle and kind the local women are in Japan proper. This is something that I think Korean women should learn from. Unlike Korean women, the upper-class women in Japan are not pretentious, but are kind and sincere, and I enjoyed spending time with them wherever I went. Mrs. Takamiya, the wife of the president of the company who rode with us on the train to Yokosuka, paid special care to look after the luggage of people like us. We completely bow our heads in gratitude for all the help that we have been given. The kindness was so sincere, and we were so engrossed in our conversations on the train on our way home, that we even rode all the way to Tokyo Station, missing our stop (laughter). Even though Korean women are sometimes very stiff and formal, I think we need to train ourselves to be a little kinder to each other.

At any rate, in Tokyo and everywhere else in Japan proper, on the electric trains and on steam locomotives, we were very sorry to see so many brave men with the wounded soldier insignia on their chests. Fortunately, a conscription system has been established in Korea, and I believe that now is the time for Korean men and women of all ages to really rise up this autumn as Imperial people."

Keijō Nippō Reporter: "Thank you very much for spending so much time with us." 

Photo: The team comforting the seriously wounded soldiers in white clothes at the First Army Hospital.

Source: https://www.archive.org/details/kjnp-1943-08-15

(Transcription)

京城日報　1943年8月15日

母子揃って楽しい一時

胸搏たれる白衣の勇士の純情

芸能慰問隊・帰還報告座談会

文英子：兵隊さんはほんとに偉いと感じさせられました。内鮮一体を言葉でなく身をもって度々示されたからです。純真で率直な兵隊さんは朝鮮服で慰問する私共に心から感謝し再起奉公を誓って下さるのです。勿体なくて泣かされた事も度々でした。勇士が戦場に出て世界一強い理由がハッキリしました。

私共もこれこそ”神の国”だと悟らされ、半島の銃後も愈々これからだ、との無言の暗示を受けました。或る一組の兵隊さんとお母さんを見ましたが、やはり赤十字病院で慰問の後、記念撮影することとなり、一人の重傷者は『自分も是非入りたい』。それから、その日見えたお母さんらしい年老いた方をも差しまねいて一緒に入って、とても満足そうでした。聞く處によりますと、その勇士は半島慰問団が来るというので遠い田舎から手紙で母親を呼び寄せ、自分も幾日も前から指折り数えて充分楽しむことが出来たと非常な喜びようでした。事情を知って私達一同も今更胸をうたれた次第でした。

金淑瓊：広島に着いたのは夜中の十二時で、みんなも相当疲労して監督格の金錦紅さんは持病の脚気がつのって遂に倒れましたが、あんなに喜んで下さる兵隊さんの様子をみると休むことは出来ないと注射を打って無理に舞台を勤めようとするのを姉さんの分はみんなで勤めますから、どうか休んで下さいと無理に頼んで休んで戴きました。そんな風に一同張切りました。

金剛春：妓生の芸なんてどんなことをするんですかーと言われた時は全く悲観しましたが、講演が終ると俄かに態度を改めて『やあ全く素晴らしい』とサイン帳など持って殺到されるんです（笑声）。こんな時には、やはり甲斐があったと愉快になりました。下関では、足の不自由な兵隊さんが『今日はほんとに有難う、これは少しですがみんなでのんで下さい．．．』と”ほまれ”二個を差し出された誠意に何度もお断りましたが、結局戴きました。

金田旺：私は先程も申し上げましたように、内地は今度で三度目ですが、神宮参拝は初めてです。神域に一歩足を踏み入れると日本の気高さ美しさに触れた気がしまして、日本は神の国だ、強い兵士の生れるのは当然だと襟を正さずにはおれません。精神生活活程度の低い半島の私達は何処に行っても引け目を感じて全く恥ずかしい思いをしました。私達も一日も早く強い立派な母になって次代を継ぐ子供を育て上げねばと決意しました。それから親兄弟の無い私は境遇が許せば、将来は篤志願看護婦を志願して働きたい念願です。

金月：私は内地へ参りまして、不思議に思ったことがございます。それは朝鮮では午前七時に遥拝し、正午に黙祷をするのですが、内地ではそれが行われ居りません。何故であろうかというのが私の疑問でございました。ところが、それが段々分かったのです。それは内地では到るところに神社がありまして、人々は朝夕心から敬虔の念を持っておがんでいるのです。汽車の窓からもこれを見ることが出来るのです。

だから内地の人々は神様といつでも一緒に居るのだということが分かり、殊更朝鮮のように定められた時間にしなくともいいのではないかということが分かったのであります。私達も毎日の生活の中にいつでも神様と一緒に生きているのだというところ迄進まなければいけないのだと感じました。

安春一：内地の病院へ行って見ますと、看護婦さんと違った婦人達が兵隊さんのよごれたものを洗って居りましたので、よく聞いて見ますと色々の婦人団体の方々が勤労奉仕をして居られるのだと聞きまして、私達もこれからどこかの病院へ行って御手伝いして上げたいと思いました。

本社側：そうですね。半島女性としての覚悟も色々とできたことと思います。

金錦紅：内地婦人の淑やかで親切なことは驚くばかりです。これは半島婦人は是非学ぶべきだと思いました。半島婦人と違って、上流婦人といってもたかぶらず、優しく誠意があって何処へ行っても楽しく過ごすことが出来ました。横須賀行きの列車で御同車願った高宮社長婦人など私等の如き者の手荷物にまで気を配られて、何くれとなく御世話下さったのには全く頭が下りました。御親切が身に沁んで帰りの汽車中では話に夢中になって、東京駅まで乗り越した程です（笑声）。半島婦人は堅苦しい点があるのでも、少し親切を尽くし合う様お互いに修練を積む必要があると思います。

兎に角内地では東京初め何処に参りましても電車の中、汽車の中、到る處に傷痍徽章を胸に付けた勇士の姿に数多く持して、ほんとうに相済まなく存じました。半島にも幸い徴兵制が布かれましたので、青年も婦人も老若挙って今こそ皇国民として真に総起ちの秋だと存じます。

本社側：長時間に亘って色々と有難うございました。

【写真＝第一陸軍病院で重傷の白衣勇士を慰問する一行】

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