How Korean numbers (하나,둘,셋…) are related to Japanese numbers (hito-, futa-, mit-…), as explained by 1938 Japanese linguistics article from colonial regime

I ran into this interesting linguistics article in the June 1938 issue of "Chōsen" (Korea), published as an official propaganda magazine of the Imperial Japanese colonial regime which controlled Korea from 1905 until 1945. A linguist named Nishimura attempts to explain how the native Korean numerals (hana, dul, set) are related to the native Japanese numerals (hito-, futa-, mit-). I am not a modern linguist, so I cannot vouch for the accuracy or quality of this paper. Nonetheless, since the information contained in this paper do not appear anywhere else on the Internet, I thought it would be appropriate to post it here for modern readers to analyze and critique. 

Nishimura often refers to numerals from the Middle Korean language, so the Korean numerals that he mentions in this paper may not necessarily be the modern ones that are used. For example, he gives the Korean number three as 서 (seo) , when the modern Korean number three is actually 셋 (set). To read up on historical Koreanic numerals from ancient times through present day, I recommend reviewing this Koreanic numerals table from Wikipedia. 

The author had a colonialist agenda of justifying the 'Japanese-Korean Unification' policy of suppressing Korean national identity, so this paper should be read in that context, understanding that scholars affiliated with the colonial regime had every incentive to produce research that supported the policies of the regime. There is a possibility that the arguments contained in this paper may have well been used by regime officials to teach Japanese to Koreans during colonial rule.

[Translation]

Japanese-Korean Numerals Common Origins Theory

By Nishimura Shintarō

The comparative study of numerals in both Japanese and Korean languages has traditionally faced difficulties and ended in failure. Consequently, many domestic and foreign scholars have pessimistically declared that Japanese and Korean numerals do not share the same origin. This widespread denial of their common origin is a significant regret in this field.

Many of those who propose theories argue for a closer relationship between Korean numerals and those of various ethnic groups in Central Asia, thereby ignoring the common origin of Japanese and Korean numerals. However, I, without regard to the paucity of evidence, assert their common origins as follows. Whether it is true or not, before I definitively conclude, I first offer this to the deniers and also express my profound respect to my mentor, Dr. Kanazawa Shōzaburō, who has resolutely and independently proposed the theory of the common origin of the fundamental concepts of numerals in both languages for some years.

When the fundamental numerals, which are essential for language comparison, align and correspond between Japanese and Korean, we can gain an unmatched driving force in all aspects of Japanese-Korean Unification. Contrary to the theories of the deniers, who argue that such correspondence is impossible and fundamentally overturns the common origin of the two languages, replacing it with one of the Central Asian language families, the negative impact of such a stance is immeasurable, and it is something that genuinely alarms me.

We should not resolve the truth politically, but when the results of truth align with politics, we must respect it as the natural order. Although the roots of both languages may have originated from the Tianshan mountains and moved eastward, cultivating numerous language families, if the numerals in Japanese, Ryukyuan, and Korean are entirely identical, discarding them to merely discuss the southern or northern routes of the Tianshan would be an inversion of cause and effect.

I believe that we must first establish the complete correspondence of numerals in both languages and then use this as a basis for comparing with other languages like Jurchen, Mongolian, etc.

[Number 1] In Japanese, words like 端 (hana), 初 (hana), 端 (hata), 初 (hatsu), 果 (hate) signify the idea of an extremity or endpoint, and are used in various forms such as 放す (hanasu - to release), 離る (hanaru - to separate), 果つ (hatsu - to end), 削る (hatsuru - to pare), 始じむ (hajimu - to begin). 端 (hata), 果 (hate) correspond to the Korean word 귿 (end). The sounds 'n', 't', and 's' are interrelated, hence Japanese words like 端 (hana), 初 (hana), 梯 (hashi - bridge, ladder), 果つ (hatsu - to end), 削る (hatsuru - to pare) correspond to 귿 in Korean.

The number one is pronounced in Japanese as ヒ (hi), ヒト (hito), ヒトツ (hitotsu), etc. ヒト (hito) can be a variation of ヒタ (hita - pure, straight, large). Derived words like ヒトシ (hitoshi - equal), ヒタスラ (hitasura - merely) are based on ヒト (hito).

In Korean, the number one is 하나 (hana), 한 (han), but in the ancient language, it was 하단 (hadan), and there is also another word 올 (ol), which does not denote an ordinal number but simply means 'alone', 'solely'. This also has many corresponding words in Japanese.

The t sound of 하단 (hadan) changes to an 'n' sound, becoming 하나 (hana). This change is similar to how Japanese 端 (hata) becomes 端 (hana). However, it is not necessary to directly compare these changes.

In the "Miscellaneous Considerations about the Idu Script" by literary scholar Dr. Kanazawa, it is stated that the number one was read as "Katana" according to the Nichūreki Encyclopedia. The Goryeo (Korean) language word 하단 (hadan) shows phonetic alignment with "Katana".

The reason why "Katana" and 하단 (hadan) align is the same reason 하단 (hadan) aligns with 귿 (end).

In Japanese, a slight vowel change in ハタ (hata - end), ハナ (hana - end) results in ヒト (hito - one). The connection between ヒト (one) and all words in this category such as ハタ (end) need not be elaborated further here.

ヒト (one) aligns in both phonetics and semantics with 하단 (hadan) and 하나 (hana) via 귿 (keut).

[Number 2] The number two is 두 in Korean, and フ (fu), フタ (futa), フタツ (futatsu), etc., in Japanese. There are several derived words from 두, such as:

(A) 뚜에 (lid): Without a bottom, there cannot be a lid (フタ - futa). 뚜에 covers the top of the bottom. It inherently contains the meaning of 두.

(B) 뒤 (behind): There is no behind without a front. If you dissect 뒤, it reduces back to 두. 뒤 is a derivative of 두.

(C) There are many others, but they are omitted here.

Now, if you remove the 'フ' (fu) from フタ (lid) and remove the 'ア' (a) from アト (behind), they become 'タ' (ta) and 'ト' (to), naturally aligning in meaning and sound with the Korean 뚜에 and 뒤. The hard sound in 뚜에 is a symbol of omitting one sound, and the 'ア' in アト (behind) is an article, used in the same way as in アツカウ (to handle), アコガル (to scorch), etc.

In Japanese, the number two is called フタ (futa), and in Korean, it is 두. In Japanese, a lid is called フタ, meaning two, and in Korean, a lid is called 뚜에, meaning 두 (two).

The Japanese フタ (two) directly corresponds in sound and meaning with the Korean 두 (two).

There are derivative words of フタ (two) in Japanese, like upper abbreviated 'タ' (ta) and lower abbreviated 'フ' (fu), and similarly, there are numerous derivatives of 두 in Korean, both upper and lower abbreviated. The proof that all these correspond exactly, such as 'アタカモ' (just like, atakamo) being exactly the same in sound as 똑 (just like, ttok), is innumerable, but this will be left for another day.

[Number 3] The number three is 서 (seo) in Korean and ミ (mi) in Japanese.

In the "Samguk Sagi" (Three Kingdoms History), Geography, Volume 4, there is a mention of "Samhyeon County," which was once called "Milpahe." This shows that in ancient Korean, the number three was referred to as 밀 (mil), but as it is now a dead language, this will not be discussed further.

The word for water caltrop is 말 (mal) in Korean, and its meaning is similar to the concept of a grain with edges (稜 - kuri) in Japanese.

Soba (buckwheat) is a grain with three edges (三稜 - mikuri). The 'バ' (ba) in Soba (ソバ) corresponds to 말 in Korean. This is because buckwheat (모밀), wheat (밀), barley (보리), and water caltrop (말) all belong to the same linguistic block. Therefore, the 'バ' in ソバ can be regarded as 말. The 'ソ' (so) in Soba (ソバ) is indisputably associated with the meaning of three. Supporting evidence can be found in the word ソヤ (soya - a type of arrow), where 'ヤ' (ya - arrow) is limited to three feathers, indicating that this 'ソ' (so) also means three. Therefore, it is necessary to conclude that the ancient Japanese reading of the numeral three was 'ソ' (so). Ultimately, 'ソ' (so) and 서 (seo) coincide, and the numerals for three in both languages completely match.

If it is to be proven that this originated from the Jurchen language, that discussion shall be reserved for another time.

[Number 4] The number four is 너 (neo), 너히 (neohi), etc., in Korean, and ヨ (yo) in Japanese.

The term 柶 (ladle) in Korean is 늇 (nyut), which refers to the concept of four trees all looking up towards the sky, hence called 늇 (four directions upwards). There are instances where 늇 is used to represent six trees in divination, and the divination using eight trees is known as the well-known Bagua.

The divination method of laying a single tree in a supine crossed position is practiced by various ethnic groups across the Asian continent, and whether this method exists in mainland Japan is a subject of interesting ethnological research.

It is speculated that the divination method with four trees, 늇, evolved into 너, 네, etc., and then lost its 'n' sound to become 'ヨ' (yo) in Japanese. However, there remains some room for debate regarding this transformation.

[Number 5] The number five is 닷 (dat) in Korean and イツ (itsu) in Japanese. The abbreviated form of イツ (itsu) is 'イ' (i), but this is definitely not the correct pronunciation for five. The 'イ' (i) in イツ is an article, commonly referred to as an introductory or exclamation word. The word with 'イ' (i) removed, leaving 'ツ' (tsu), corresponds to 닷 (dat) in Korean.

[Number 6] The number six is 엿 (yeot) in Korean, which has almost no relation to ム (mu) in Japanese. Initially, it was referred to as 엿, but later it seems that an 'm' sound was inserted, as in ムベ (mube - to declare) and ムマ (muma - horse) in Japanese. However, regrettably, this explanation is not fully established.

[Number 7] The number seven is 닐곱 (nilgop) in Korean and ナナ (nana) in Japanese.

In the "Samguk Sagi" (Three Kingdoms History), Geography, Volume 4, there are references to a "Seven-layered Castle" called 난은별 (Naneunbyeol) in one instance and a "Layered Castle" in another. Also, in the "Yeoji Seungram" (Survey of the Geography of Korea), Gyeonggi Section, there is a mention of the name of a district, Jikseong, referred to as "Seven-layered Castle," "Layered Castle," and 내별 (Naebyeol). 

Naneunbyeol corresponds to 난은 (nan-eun) and ナナ (nana), and Nae in Naebyeol corresponds to 내 (nae) and ナ (na). From the Hanja (Chinese characters) translation of these names as "Seven-layered Castle," it is clear that the ancient Korean word for seven was '나' (na), corresponding to ナナ (nana).

The ancient words 나 (na), 내 (nae) evolved into 니 (ni), and 니롭 (nilrop - cattle and horses at the age of seven) eventually came to be called 닐곱 (nilgop). This change is as evident as seeing fire, and ultimately, ナナ (nana) corresponds to 닐곱 (nilgop).

[Number 8] The number eight is ヤ (ya) in Japanese and 여듧 (yeodeol) in Korean. ヤ (ya) and 여 (yeo) correspond to each other, but the meaning of 듧 (deol) is difficult to determine immediately. 닐곱 (nilgop - seven), 여듧 (yeodeol - eight), 아홉 (ahop - nine) - the '곱' (gop) part in these words seems to be a supplementary word attached to the base word in the upper part.

[Number 9] The number nine is ココノツ (kokonotsu) in Japanese, which is often abbreviated to ココ (koko), コ (ko), etc. In Korean, it is 아홉 (ahop). 아홉 has a 'g' or 'k' sound that corresponds to コ (ko) in Japanese, and 홉 (hop) also corresponds to the 'k' sound of コ (ko). Therefore, 아홉 can be equated to ココプ (kokopu) in terms of pronunciation.

[Number 10] The number ten is 열 (yeol) in Korean and トヲ (towo) in Japanese. Ten is recognized as the largest number in the decimal system, leading to the creation of various derived words. 여러 (yeoreo), although not an ordinal numeral, corresponds to ヨロヅ (yorozu - ten thousand) and ヨロ (yoro - a lot, crowd) in Japanese, both signifying 'a large number,' a fact already well known to the world.

In the "Samguk Sagi" (Three Kingdoms History), Goksan County Records, there is a mention of "Ten Valleys Castle," called Deokdonhol (덕돈홀) in one instance. Deok corresponds to ten, and ton corresponds to valley. This shows that the ancient Korean word for ten was 덕 (deok), which corresponds phonetically with トヲ (towo) in Japanese.

The old Japanese word ツヅ (tsuzu - ten) is also a derivative of トヲ (towo), and 덕 (deok) or 다물 (damul - cattle and horses at the age of ten) correspond with each other in terms of the 't' sound. ソ (so) might be a variation of ト (to - ten).

[Other Numbers] The meanings of 스믈 (seumul - twenty), 마흔 (maheun - forty), 쉰 (swin - fifty) are unclear.

One hundred is 온 (on) in Korean, but it is unclear whether it is an ordinal numeral. The corresponding word for 온 in Japanese is 'ホ' (ho), and 'ホ' and 온 align phonetically. モモ (momo - hundred) requires separate study.

즈믄 (jeumeun) is the old word for one thousand, corresponding to 'チ' (chi) in Japanese.

There is no Korean word for ten thousand; the Japanese ヨロヅ (yorozu - ten thousand) corresponds to 여러 (yeoreo - a crowd), as already mentioned.

In the following, the theory proposed by a certain scholar during the Meiji era regarding the doubling of vowels in numerals to indicate an increase in quantity, is rendered obsolete by the presentation of corresponding numerals in both languages.

It is not only that the fundamental concepts of numerals in both languages are almost identical, but also that the words related to numerals correspond to each other in both languages.

The word カタ (kata - piece, part) has traditionally been considered to originate from one side (一方 - hitokata) of 方 (kata - direction, side). However, since 方 signifies one half of an entity, it is clear that the direction, position-related 方 was derived from 片 (kata - piece, part), reversing the primary subject. カタ (kata) corresponds in both sound and meaning to 가닭 (gadak - branch, division) and has its equivalent in Central Asian languages. 片 (kata) means half, implying a division, and signifies 'one side.' For instance, one shoe of a pair of geta illustrates this, where 片々 (katagata) means each half. Numerals become plural and signify 'a large number' due to frequent usage. 가닭가닭 (gadakgadak) means scattered, disorganized, and this usage aligns in both languages.

マタ (mata - also, again) means two and corresponds to 또 (tto - also, again) in Korean. The hard sound is a symbol of omitting one sound, which appears as 'm' in Japanese.

マタ (mata) becomes マタシ (matashi - all). 가닭 (gadak) has derivatives like 갓 (gat - just, exactly) and 한갓 (hangat - single-mindedly), and there are adjectives like 갓라 (gatra), meaning 'both are equal.' コドシ (kodoshi - like) and 갓라 are obviously synonymous. ヨス (yosu - to add) derives from the meaning of gathering and comes to mean to add. This also corresponds to 여러 (yeoreo - crowd), and words like twisting also relate to 'number.'

ヘス (hesu - to reduce) and ヘル (heru - to decrease) are related to numbers, corresponding to 빼다 (ppaeda - to extract) in Korean. If that is not surprising, then what is?

Above is only the essence of the ordinal numerals in both languages. Even from this, it is clear that the fundamental numerals in both languages are completely equivalent. This forms the basis for the verbs and adjectives in both languages to align and correspond with each other, which is why we re-emphasize the common origins of both languages here.

[Transcription]

国語朝鮮語数詞同一論

西村真太郎

両語数詞の対当は従来難渋に逢着し失敗に終り、内外の諸学者は概ね両語数詞同源ならずと悲観説を発表し、従って両語の同源を根柢から否認する人が多いのは、斯道の為に一大痛恨事である。

説を為す学者の多くは、朝鮮語数詞と中央亜細亜地方の諸民族の数詞との接近対当を主張し、以って国語朝鮮語の数詞の同源を無視するのであるが、吾人は乏しきを顧みず凡そ左の通り其の同一を主張する次第である。当れりや否や、之を吾人が断定する前に、先ず否認論者に一応之を提供し、且つ独り毅然として年来両語数詞の根本観念の同源を創説せられたる恩師金澤庄三郎博士に、深甚なる敬意を奉る。

言語対当の根本たる数詞が国語と朝鮮語と符節を合して相等しい場合に、吾人は内鮮一体の万般の事象に対し強烈無比の推進力を獲得し得たりと云うべく、否認者流の説くが如く、対当不能不可であり、延いては両語の同源を根本から覆えし、之を中央亜細亜語族の一方に置き換えんとするが如きことがあっては、其の悪影響は蓋し測り知る能わざるものがあり、自ら戦慄を禁じ得ないものがある。

真理を政治的に解決するのではなく、真理の結果が政治に合致する場合に、吾人は之を天道として尊崇する。両語の根源が天山に発し、東進して数語族を培養したであろうが、国語琉球語朝鮮語の数詞は全く同一なる場合、其を棄てて徒らに天山南路北路を云々するは、本末を正さんとして却って本末を裏返した事となる。

吾人は両語数詞の完全一致を立証し、次にそれを携げて女真、蒙古等の諸語との対比に向うべきであると信ずる。

（壱）国語端（ハナ）、初（ハナ）、端（ハタ）、初（ハツ）、果（ハテ）は尖端の意で、放す（はなす）、離る（はなる）、果つ（はつ）、削る（はつる）、始じむ（はじむ）等と活用する。端（ハタ）、果（ハテ）は朝鮮語귿（端）と対当である。ｎ音とｔ音とｓ音とは夫々相通であるから端（ハナ）、初（ハナ）、㟨（ハシ）、果つ（はつ）、削る（はつる）等、此のブロック内の語は귿と対当となる。

一はヒ、ヒト、ヒトツ等唱える。ヒトはヒタ（純、直、大）と変音する。ヒトシ（等）ヒタスラ（只管）等はヒトの派生語である。

さて、朝鮮語一は하나、한等であるが、古語は하단（河屯）で、別に올と云うのがあるが之は順序数詞ではなく、単に「単独」の意を有つ語で、之も数多の対当語を国語内に有って居る。

하단（河屯）のｔ音はｎ音に変わると하나となる。此の変化は国語端（ハタ）が端（ハナ）と変化したのと、さも似寄って居る。然し之を直ちに対比せしめないでもよい。

金澤文学博士著『吏読雑考』中に二中暦に一を「カタナ」と訓ずとある。高麗語カタナは하단とは音韻の一致を見る。

カタナと하단とが一致するのと同一の理由で、하단と귿とが一致する。

国語ハタ（端）ハナ（端）の母音を少し変更すると「ヒト」となる。ヒト（一）の意とハタ（端）等の一切のブロック内の語との脉絡関係は、今更茲で述べる必要がない。

ヒト（一）は귿（端）を介して하단（河屯）하나（一）と音韻、語義両ら一致する。

（弐）二は朝鮮語두で国語はフ、フタ、フタツ等である。두の派生語に左の諸語がある。

（A)뚜에（蓋）

底がなければフタ（蓋）が出来ない。뚜에は底の上を蓋う。之に두の意が自ら含んで居る。

（B)뒤（後）

前のない後はない。뒤を解剖すると두に還元する。뒤は두の派生語である。

（C）其の他多数にあるが省略する。

さてフタ（蓋）アト（後）の「フ」「ア」を省くと「タ」「ト」となり朝鮮語뚜에、뒤に自然に意義と音声とが合致する。뚜에の硬音は一音省略の符号であり、アト（後）の「ア」は冠語で、其の用例はアツカウ（扱）アコガル（焦）等の「ア」と同じい。

国語二をフタと云い、朝鮮語二を두と云い、国語蓋を二（フタ）の意でフタと云い、朝鮮語蓋を두の意で뚜에と云う。

国語フタ（二）は直接朝鮮語두（二）と声音、語義が全く相等しい。

フタ（二）の上略「タ」下略「フ」等の派生語もあり、두の上略下略の派生語も数多あるが、それが悉く相等しく「アタカモ」は똑（恰も）と声音其の儘相等しい等の立証は実に無数であるが他日に譲る。

（参）三は朝鮮語서で国語はミである。

三国史記地理、四、三峴県、一云密波兮。とあり、朝鮮古語に三を밀と称えた事は明瞭であるが、今日は死語となって居るから挙論しない。

菱は말（字会）で、語義は稜（くり）のある穀粒の意である。

ソバ（蕎麦）は三稜（みくり）の穀粒である。バは말に対当する。それは모밀（蕎麦）밀（小麦）보리（麥）말（菱）等が皆同一ブロック内の語である事から、ソバのバは말としてよい。ソは三の義である事は争う余地もない。其の傍証はソヤ（征矢）でヤ（矢）の三羽なるに限りてソヤ（征矢）と云うから此の「ソ」も三の意である。故に国語三の古訓は「ソ」であると断定しなければならぬ。遂に「ソ」と서は一致し、三の両語数詞も完全に符節を合する。若しそれ之が女真語から端を発して居る等と証明するのは次回に述ぶべき事に属する。

（肆）四は朝鮮語너、너히等で、国語はヨである。

柶は늇で四木が皆仰天すると늇（四向上）と称える。此の늇を六木として占う場合もあり、八木として卜するのを所謂八卦と称する。

片木を仰臥交叉せしめる占法は、亜細亜大陸の何れの民族もが行ったもので、内地に此の法があるかないかも民族学上面白い考証があると思う。

四木の占法늇が너、네等に変化し、之がｎ音を失って「ヨ」となったと想像するが、果してどうか、之には多少の余地が残る。

（伍）五は朝鮮語닷で国語イツである。イツの下略は「イ」であるが、之が五の正音では決してない。イツのイは冠語で普通所謂発語等と称し、ツに冠した語で之を省いた「ツ」は닷に対当する。

（陸）六は엿でムと殆ど関係がない。初め엿と称えて居ったが、後ムベ（宣）ムマ（馬）等の如くｍを挿入したとも思えるが、遺憾ながら説を成さない。

（漆）七は朝鮮語닐곱で、国語はナナである。

三国史記地理四に七重城、一日難隠別、一日重城。とあり又、輿地勝覧京畿篇に積城郡郡名、七重城、重城、乃別とある。

難隠は난은、ナナに対当し、乃も내でナに対当し之等を漢訳して七を重ねる意で七重城と訳したのを見ると、七の朝鮮古語は「나」であった事が判明し、茲にナナと対当となる。

나、내の古語が니と変化し、니롭（牛馬七歳）となり、遂に닐곱と称えるに至った事は、火を見るよりも明らかに認められる處であり、結局ナナは닐곱と対当となる。

（捌）八は国語ヤで、朝鮮語여듧である。ヤと여とは対当であるが、듧が如何なる意味かは今俄かに判断し難い。닐곱、여듧、아홉の「곱」の類は上部の基本語に付随した補足語であろう。

（玖）ココノツ（九）はココ、コ等と下略する。朝鮮語は아홉である。아홉はｇ又はｋ音でコに通じ、홉もｋ音コに通じ、아홉とはココプと訓むに等しい。

（拾）十は朝鮮語열で国語トヲである。

十を十進法中の最大数と認め、여러なる派生語を生じ、此の여러（衆）は順序数詞ではないが、ヨロヅ（万）ヨロ（丁）に対当し、共に「多数」の語義を有って居る事は、已に世人の熟知して居る處である。

さて三国史記谷山郡誌に、十谷城県、一云徳頓忽。とある。徳は十に対し、頓は谷に対する。茲に朝鮮語十の古語が덕であった事が判明し、トヲと덕とは声音学上の一致を見る。

国語古語ツヅ（十）も「トヲ」の派生語であり、덕又は다물（牛馬十歳）と、ｔ音が互に相応じて居る。

ソ（十）はト（十）の変音であろう。

스믈（二十）마흔（四十）쉰（五十）は如何にしても語義が不明である。

百は온であるが、果して順序数詞かどうか不明である。온の対当語は「ホ」で「ホ」と「온」とは声音学上一致する。モモは別に研究せねばならぬ。

즈믄は千の古語で「チ」と対当である。

万の朝鮮語はなく、国語ヨロヅ（万）は여러（衆）と対当である事は已に述べた。

次に明治年代に某学者に依って発表せられた数詞の母音の倍加で、増数するとの説は、両語数詞の対当の発表に依って、反古に帰する。

両語数詞の根本観念が略一致して居るのみならず、数詞に関連する諸語が互に相等しい事も推知し得られる處である。

カタ（片）は従来一方（ひとかた）の方（かた）から生まれた語とされて居るが、方（かた）は個体の半分を意味する語であるから片（かた）から漢字「方」を充当すべき方角、位置に就いての方（かた）が生れたもので明白に主格が顛倒して居る。カタ（片）は가닭（分派）と声音語義両ら相等しく、가닭は中央亜細亜語にも其の対当がある。片（かた）は半分で「分派」の意であり、「一方」を意味する。下駄片足の如きでが之で、片々は半分宛である。数詞は重用に依って「多数」を意味し、複数となる。가닭가닭はバラバラ、チリヂリの意で、其の重用法は互いに一致して居る。

マタ（又）は二を意味し、朝鮮語또（又）と対当である。硬音はX音で国語ｍとなって顕われたものである。

マタ（又）はマタシ（全）となる。가닭（分派）も、갓（丁度）한갓（一途に）等の派生語があり、갓라の形容詞があり、「二者相等し」の意となる。コドシ（如）と갓라とは言う迄もなく相同じい。ヨス（加）も寄る集る意から派生して加える意となって居る。之も여러（衆）と対当であり、撚る等も之と相関連して「数」に関係のある語と言えよう。

ヘス（減）ヘル（減）も数に関係があり、之が朝鮮語では빼다（抜き取る）と対当となって居る。意外と叫ばずして何と呼べばよいのであろうか。

以上両語順序数詞のエッセンス丈を書いたのであるが、之を以ってしても、言語学上両語対照の根本たる数詞が全く相等しい事が判り、それが根本となって続いて両語の動詞、形容詞が符節を合して相等しくなるのであるから、茲に吾人は両語の同一を更めて強調する次第である。

Source: https://archive.org/details/chosen-v36-1938/page/n894/mode/1up

Annie Ellers Bunker, American missionary who went from personal physician to Empress Myeongseong to thriving philanthropist in Colonial Korea, was praised in this 1938 Keijo Nippo obituary for endorsing the Imperial Japanese Army

This obituary from October 1938, published in Keijo Nippo newspaper, an organ of the Imperial Japanese colonial regime which ruled Korea from 1905 to 1945, features Annie Ellers Bunker, an American Methodist missionary and physician who spent around 50 years in Korea. This article sheds light on her remarkable journey, from being Empress Myeongseong's personal physician to her involvement in colonial Korea's society.

Annie Ellers Bunker

Born on August 31, 1860, and passing away on October 8, 1938 (exactly 43 years after the assassination of the Empress), Annie's life spanned significant historical events. Her role as the personal physician to Empress Myeongseong, especially leading up to the Empress's assassination in October 1895, granted her intimate access to the royal court. After the annexation of Korea by Imperial Japan, she seemed to prosper, raising thousands of yen to support various institutions including the Korean Young Women's Christian Association, Gongju Orphanage, Gongju M&A School, and Dongdaemun Women's Hospital. This indicates her significant influence in colonial Korea.

Interestingly, her last words before her death in 1938 were "I wish the Japanese Army will win soon and bring peace to the East", raising questions about her possible pro-Japanese sentiments, even during her time as the Empress's physician. Given her intimate access to the royal court at the time of the Empress's assassination, her documented pro-Japanese sentiments, and her subsequent successful career as a philanthropist in Korea under Imperial Japanese rule, it naturally raises a delicate question: could she have had any involvement or knowledge regarding the Imperial Japanese conspirators who assassinated the Empress? This is a matter left to historians to ponder, and it is not my intention to accuse Annie Ellers of any wrongdoing but to highlight the complexities and controversies surrounding her life.

Annie's closeness with Empress Myeongseong is further highlighted by an incident where, upon her marriage to Dalzell Bunker, the Empress demanded to see her wedding dress, examining it meticulously.

Annie's impact extended to nursing in Korea, being the first female medical missionary in the country. A Boston University Medical College student, she arrived in Korea in 1886, founded the Chungshin Girl’s School, and became a trailblazer in women's healthcare and education.

Annie Ellers Bunker as a young adult. (from Boston University website)

In 1938, the colonial authorities took over the Chungshin Girl's High School, which she founded, and converted it into a state-controlled school promoting State Shintoism and imposing the Japanese language.

Her first encounter with the Empress is vividly documented in her personal essay published in the Korean Repository, a journal for foreign Christian missionaries published between 1892 and 1899. This account provides a fascinating glimpse into her life and the complexities of her role in Korea. For the sake of improving accessibility, I have transcribed and posted the entire essay below, originally found in a PDF from the Korean Repository which is not OCR enabled.

Annie Ellers Bunker is now buried at the Yanghwajin Foreign Missionary Cemetery in Seoul, where her grave marker notes her 40 years of service as a missionary in Korea, until 1926.

This story is not just about the life of a missionary or a physician; it's about a woman whose life intersected crucial historical events, raising questions about her beliefs and the impact she had on Korean society.

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) October 12, 1938

The Grave of the Blue-Eyed Couple Guarding the Red Earth

• Fifty Years of Life on the Korean Peninsula
• Her Last Testament Praises the Imperial Army
• Pro-Japanese American Mrs. Bunker

The deceased Mrs. L. A. Bunker, who dedicated her life to social work on the Korean peninsula for fifty years, will have her funeral at the Chungdong Methodist Church at 10 am on the 12th at 13 Jeongdong-gil. Her last words, spoken to relatives and friends offering solemn prayers at her peaceful deathbed at 9 am on the 8th, were these: “I feel terribly sorry for the wounded Japanese soldiers on the battlefield. Why isn't the war over yet? I wish the Japanese Army will win soon and bring peace to the East.”

With a trembling hand, Mrs. Bunker took out the remaining hundred yen from her entire fortune, which she had dispersed for charitable causes, and requested it be used as a fund for the Japanese Red Cross. Then, she closed her eyes in peace. The words and actions of this foreign lady on her deathbed are being passed from mouth to mouth among friends, stirring deep emotion among the Japanese, Koreans, and foreigners in Seoul.

But who was Mrs. Bunker? Fifty years ago, she bravely came to Korea from her native America alone for missionary work. Fortunately, being a female doctor, she was warmly welcomed by the Korean government. At that time, there were hardly any Western medical facilities in Korea, so Mrs. Bunker, as a pioneer in Western medicine in Korea, dedicated herself and served for many years in the palace as the personal physician to the deceased Empress Myeongseong. After the annexation of Korea by Japan, she focused on missionary and charitable work for thirty years, contributing thousands of yen to various institutions such as the Korean Young Women's Christian Association, Gongju Orphanage, Gongju M&A School, and Dongdaemun Women's Hospital, dedicating her life to social work in Korea for fifty years. Five years ago, her husband Dr. Bunker died while she was on holiday in America. Her husband was so pro-Japanese that he requested in his will to have his remains moved to Korea. Mrs. Bunker, too, will be buried in the beloved Korean soil alongside her husband. [Photo: Mrs. Bunker]

[Transcription]

京城日報 1938年10月12日

赭土を護る碧眼夫婦塚

• 半島生活五十年
• 遺言に讃う皇軍
• 親日の米人バンカー夫人

五十年間半島の社会事業に一生を捧げ、十二日朝十時貞洞町監理教教会で葬式が行われる貞洞町一三故レ・エ・バンカー夫人が去る八日朝九時、静かな臨終の病床で厳粛な祈祷を捧げる親戚友人等に遺して去った最後の言葉はこれだ。

「戦場に傷ついた日本軍人が気の毒でならない。まだ戦争が終らないのか。早く日本軍が勝って東洋に平和が来て欲しい」と夫人は微かに震える手で慈善事業のために全財産をばらまいて残った百円を取り出し日本赤十字事業資金にしてくれと依頼した後、安心したように目を閉じた。死の床に於ける一外人夫人のこの言葉と行為は友人の口から口へ伝わって在城の内鮮外人を問わず感激の話題となっているが、このバンカー夫人はどんな人であったか。

今から五十年前、夫人は故国アメリカから単身宣教のため、勇敢にも朝鮮に飛び込んだ。幸いに夫人は女医でもあったので韓国政府は喜んで厚く迎えた。当時朝鮮はおろか洋医薬の施設は殆どなかった時代なので、夫人は朝鮮に洋医術を済した草分けとして献身的な努力をなし選ばれて故閔妃の侍医として多年宮中に仕えた。日韓併合後は三十年この方布教の外に慈善事業に専念し、朝鮮女子青年会、公州託児所、公州エムエー学校、東大門夫人病院などには何れも数千円の寄付金をおくるなど五十年一生の朝鮮社会事業のために尽くして来た。五年前アメリカへ休暇帰国中図らずも死んだ夫のバンカー博士も遺言によって遺骨を朝鮮に移葬した程の親日家で、夫人も夫君と並んでなつかしい朝鮮の土に葬られることになっている。【写真＝バンカー夫人】

Source: https://archive.org/details/kjnp-1938-10-12/page/n9/mode/1up

[The Korean Repository, October 1895, pp. 373-375.]

My First Visit to Her Majesty, The Queen

During the visit of Mrs. H. G. Underwood and myself to Her Majesty on the 14th of September we saw the Queen Dowager and she gave us each a handsome gold-embroidered chumoncy or purse-Our visit to Her Royal Highness was in the same place where some years ago I went to see the Queen. Many changes have come since then and the Queen now lives in a new building, beautifully lighted with electricity, in another part of the grounds.

It is just nine years ago this fall since I was first, in company with Dr. H. N. Allen the King's physician, called to visit, Her Majesty, the Queen. She had been ill for some time and they had sent to Dr. Allen for medicines. As there was no improvement in her condition the Doctor assured them, that, in order to treat Her Majesty properly, she must be examined, and so the writer was called.

It was a lovely autumn day, when in the early afternoon, we started for the Palace in our sedan chairs, with our keysos (soldiers) running ahead and clearing the way. My heart was thumping vigorously and I wondered how I would be received, half fearing the ordeal.

On our arrival at the outer side-gate of the palace wall, we had to get out of our chairs and walk quite a distance, about a quarter of a mile, I should judge, to the Reception Hall. As we neared the place we were met by Prince Min Young Ik whom I had met, and who, having travelled much, knew something of the customs of foreigners.

He showed us some of the beauties of the palace grounds and after our walk around the artificial lake, he escorted us to the waiting-room and there had us served with foreign food, Korean fruit and nuts.

Soon a messenger dressed in court costume came for me and, Prince Min accompanying me, we started for the Audience Hall. We first crossed a large open court, which I noticed had large potted plants around three sides of it but not a spear of grass growing in it anywhere. Ascending a flight of broad stone steps, crossing the narrow verandah and stepping over a high door sill, I found that we were at one end of a long, wide hall, the floors of which were covered with the soft, beautiful, figured Korean matting which is such a fine article and so hard to obtain. At the farther end of the hall, I saw a large number of Koreans, men, women, and young girls. I made my three bows as I advanced and then found myself in front of the company among whom I soon singled out Her Majesty and for the rest of that visit I had eyes for no one but her. In later visits I learned to distinguish the gentlemen from the eunuchs, and also the ladies-in-waiting by their peculiar head-gear and their fine skirts of silk gauze. The immense chignons worn by these ladies are objects of wonder not only as to size but also as to how the intricate windings and braidings of the glossy strands is accomplished. One evening while witnessing some of the delightful and peculiar posture-dancing done by the dancing girls at the palace, I asked one of them if her chignon was not heavy - "Oh, said she, it is very heavy and makes my head ache." These head dressings vary in shape; sometimes they are long and narrow and then again they have large lateral loops.

The Queen, beautifully dressed in silk gauze skirts, with strings of pearls in her raven locks, a lady, short of stature, with white skin black eyes and black hair, greeted me most pleasantly. She had on no enormous head dress but only her own glistening locks twisted in a most becoming know low down on her neck. She wears on the top of her forehead her Korean insignia of rank. All the ladies of the nobility wear a similar decoration but of inferior quality and workmanship. To me the face of the Queen especially when she smiles, is full of beauty. She is a superior woman and she impressed one as having a strong will and great force of character, with much kindliness of heart. I have always received the kindest words and treatment from her and I have much admiration and great respect for her. After first asking if I were well, how old I was, how my parents were, if I had brothers and sisters and how they were, she proceeded to tell me that they had been told by Dr. Allen of my arrival in Korea, that she was much pleased at my coming and hoped I would like the country. All of this conversation was carried on through an interpreter who stood, with his body bent double, back of a door where he could hear but not see.

Prince Min, who had been standing by, now had a chair brought for me and I noticed that back of Her Majesty there was a foreign couch. The Queen telling me to be seated sat down on this couch and then the medical part of the interview began.

I had noticed that two gentlemen had seated themselves when the Queen sat and when I got up to leave, they with Her Majesty rose and returned my bows.

Prince Min conducted me back to the waiting room and there I waited for Dr. Allen who was having an audience with His Majesty. When he returned I learned from him that both the King and Crown Prince had been present during my interview. I was very glad that I had not known who the two gentlemen were, for I fear my composure would not have been even such at it was. After being served with more food and fruit we were each given a certain number of soldiers to accompany us home and also, as it was dark, lantern bearers. The sight of the Korean lantern with its outer covering of red and green silk gauze is very picturesque and as we passed, many a dusky head peeped out through opened doors and windows to see what it all meant. The empty dark streets with the dark low houses on either side, the lantern bearers of the Doctor's chair and of mine with the attendant soldiers, carrying their rifles made a picture at once interesting and unique. In recent visits we are permitted to go through the large front gate into the grounds and right up to the waiting room door. Upon arriving here tea, coffee, and fruit are served and then we are called in to Her Majesty, who receives us in one of the smaller private appartments. The King and Crown Prince are always present. After the interview we are permitted to proceed home immediately.

Annie Ellers Bunker

Ms. B.F. Starkey, blue-eyed American missionary featured in 1938 Keijo Nippo as a pro-Imperial model foreigner inspired by Japanese-Korean Unification policy to join the Patriotic Women’s Association in Seoul

This 1938 article is a historical account in a colonial propaganda newspaper about Ms. B.F. Starkey, an American missionary in Korea during the Japanese colonial period who devoted decades of her life in Imperial Japan in various charitable activities.

Her decision to cooperate with the colonial regime starkly contrasts with fellow American missionary George McCune's decision in 1935 to refuse to perform State Shinto worship rituals, for which he was forced by the colonial authorities to leave Korea. The fact that Ms. Starkey was able to continue to operate in Korea in 1938 probably means that she decided to go along with performing the State Shinto rituals, including the mandatory 7 am Kyujo Yohai prayers, even though it was against her Christian beliefs. In any case, she probably would not have been able to stay in Korea past 1942, when Americans who still remained in Imperial Japan were detained and deported.

This is the second Keijo Nippo newspaper article that I found featuring a blue-eyed woman. The other one featured a blue-eyed Russian Tatar woman, Shamseinoor Berikova, who was a member of the National Women's Defense Association (NWDA), which was similar but distinct from the Patriotic Women's Association (PWA) to which Ms. Starkey belonged. Historically, the elite wealthy and powerful women tended to join the PWA, while the NWDA had a much closer connection with the Imperial Japanese military and had a broader membership. The two organizations subsequently merged in 1942.

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) July 2, 1938

A blue-eyed woman with a Patriotic Women's Association Sash

Courageous words of Ms. Starkey: "I also want to help out Japan on the home front!"

Moved by the spirited march of Koreans working for the war effort under the policy of Japanese-Korean Unification, a blue-eyed foreign woman was inspired and said, 'Please let me join in these duties on the home front.' Recently, she applied to join the Patriotic Women's Association at its third branch in Takezoe-chō (present-day Chungjeong-no), Seoul, delighting the leaders and members of the group who received her unusual membership application for the first time. The heroine of this story, Ms. B.F. Starkey, an American residing at 3-30 Takezoe-chō, Seoul, has now proudly become a member of the Patriotic Women's Association. At 56 years old, she joins Japanese and Korean members in comforting families of conscripts, collecting national defense funds, and impressing the community with her passionate efforts, dressed in the Association's uniform of a white apron and a purple sash.

Twenty-eight years ago, in 1910, Ms. Starkey landed in Nagasaki as a Methodist missionary in Japan, the land of poetry. Immediately struck by Japan's picturesque landscapes and warm people, she decided to dedicate her life to this country. Ever since then, for twenty-eight years, she has continued to live in this land, true to her initial resolve, dedicating her life to missionary work and cultural pursuits out of her love for Japan. She has nurtured young men and women who gathered around her, drawn to her pure character, as if they were her own children. She has earnestly lead English language clubs and student Bible classes every evening at her home without pay, and opened her garden as a playground for local children to give some relief to their families.

Dedicated to cultural advancement and community service, she also runs a female-only 'private convent,' Shion Dormitory, in the second floor of her house. With open arms, she welcomes young unmarried women who left their families as well as young girls in need of guidance who approach her for answers and salvation, continuing to selflessly devote herself in helping them awaken from misguided dreams through a pure lifestyle at the dormitory. Currently, 13 girls enjoy a pleasant life there, and she has already sent many well-cultured women into society as respectable wives.

Ms. Starkey's high regard as a saintly figure and her membership in the Patriotic Women's Association have sparked usual delight among foreigners living in Seoul, and that is expected to inspire a surge of membership among pro-Japanese foreigners. When visited at her home, she humbly commented, 'I am only doing what is natural,' and made only brief remarks without continuing further. [The photo is of blue-eyed Ms. Starkey]

[Transcription]

京城日報 1938年7月2日

碧い眼に愛婦の襷

”わたしも日本の銃後に”と勇み参じたスターキー女史

内鮮一体で行進する半島銃後の雄々しい姿に感激した碧眼の一外国婦人が「私もこの銃後の勤めに参加させて下さい」とこの程。

☆．．．愛国婦人会

京城竹添町第三分館に入会を求めて来り京城で初めてのこの珍しい入会申込を受けた何団の幹部初め会員一問をいたく喜ばせた。話題のヒロインは府内竹添町三の三〇アメリカ人ビー・エフ・スターキー女子（五六）で晴れて愛婦会員となった。女子は白いエプロンに紫襷の愛婦会服で内鮮人会員と共に応召家族の慰問に、国防金の募集に、健気な奮闘を続け町内を感激させている。

女史は今から二十八年前の一九一〇年メソジスト教会宣教師として長崎に上陸。直ちに詩の国日本の美しい景色と人情に打たれてこの国に骨を埋めようと決心し、以来二十八年間、最初の決心通りこの地で布教のために、文化のために日本を愛する生活を続けて来た。女史の清い人格を慕って集まる若い男女を彼女はわが子のように世話し、また英語クラブ、学生バイブル・クラス等を自宅に設けて毎晩熱心に、しかも無報酬で指導するほか、庭園には子供の遊園地を設けて附近の子供等のために家族を解放するなど。

文化向上と社会奉仕に犠牲的努力を続けているが、更に同家二階に設置経営する男子禁断の「私設修道院」紫苑寮で家庭を離れた若い独身女、或は悩み迷う若い娘で女史に解決や救いを求めて来るものがあれば両手をひろげて迎え入れこの寮における清い生活によって間違った夢から醒めしめることに献身的努力を続けて来ている。現在この寮で楽しい生活を送っている娘は十三名。既に修養を積み立派な人妻として世話に送り出したものが数十名にのぼっている。

この聖女のほまれ高いスターキー嬢の愛婦人会は在城外人間には異様な感激を与え親日外人同志等の入会者続出が予想されている。自宅に女史を訪えば「妾はただ当たり前のことをしているだけです」と続かんで多くを語らなかった（写真は青眼スターキーさん）

Source: https://archive.org/details/kjnp-1938-07-02/page/n10/mode/1up

Shamseinoor Berikova, 19-year-old blue-eyed Russian Tatar refugee woman and Seoul resident in 1938, featured in Keijo Nippo as a pro-Imperial Japan patriotic model minority speaking fluent Japanese and supporting Imperial soldiers on their way to China

This article from 1938 features Shamseinoor Berikova, a 19-year-old blue-eyed Russian Tatar woman who was a daughter of a clothing merchant in Kōgane-machi, which today forms the northern area of the present-day Myeongdong district, in the area immediately to the east of present-day Euljiro 1(il)-ga station. She was part of the Russian Tatar refugee community from the Volga-Ural region which escaped persecution during the 1917 Russian Revolution. Her family was driven out from Hailar, Manchuria in 1926, when Manchuria was still ruled by various warlords, and they settled in Seoul by way of Kumamoto.

Original caption: Photo: Shamseinoor, the blue-eyed member of the National Women's Defense Association

This article may have also had a propaganda purpose to put this Tatar teenager on a pedestal as a 'model minority' to encourage the Korean people to follow her example by embracing Japanese language and culture and supporting the Imperial Japanese military.

Here is an excellent academic paper about the history of the Russian Tatar refugee community in Imperial Japan from their origins in the Volga-Ural region through the Russian Revolution in 1917, migration to Imperial Japan, and later emigration to the United States and Turkey after the war: [Link]

Imperial Japan's support of Islam and Muslim communities has a fascinating historical background. For those interested in delving deeper, here's a link to an academic paper on the topic: [Link] 

Here, you can also find links to other articles about the Tatar people in Seoul during the colonial period that I've found in the Keijo Nippo newspaper so far:

• The Sulemans were a Russian Tatar refugee family in Seoul who gained acceptance as assimilated Imperial Japanese people while holding strong to their Muslim faith, and left for Turkey amid warm farewells in 1939 [Link]
• Spotlight on 1943 Seoul: A Glimpse into the Russian Tatar Refugee Community, Marja Ibrahim's Poetry Tribute to Tatar National Poet Ğabdulla Tuqay on the 30-year anniversary of his death [Link]
• Small community of ~100 Russian Tatars in Seoul featured in 1942-1944 propaganda articles: a young 19-year-old Tatar girl is praised for filling out immigration forms for her neighbors, a Tatar woman is commended for scolding her friends with red fingernails for wearing 'British-American' cosmetics [Link]
• In 1942 Busan, Korean pastors and foreign residents (Russian Tatar family, English woman, Chinese consul) praise Imperial Japan as British POWs captured in Malaysia start arriving in the city [Link]

As is my norm, I've included links throughout the translation to cultural and historical references that might be unfamiliar.

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) June 7, 1938

Strengthening the Korean Peninsula on the Home Front: The Blue-Eyed Girl with Sen'ninbari Amulets

Wearing a Lovely White Sash of the National Women's Defense Association

The blue-eyed young woman who has fled from demonic persecution offers her thanks and consolation to the valiant Imperial Army fighting on the front lines by sending gifts like Sen'ninbari amulets. As a foreigner finding refuge, she is deeply grateful for the boundless benevolence bestowed upon her. Though her arms may be weak, she has resolved to repay this kindness and has joined the National Women's Defense Association, bringing an inspiring story to life.

The girl in question is Shamseinoor Berikova (age 19), the only daughter of Mr. Shah Berikov, a clothing merchant in Seoul in the district of Kōgane-machi 2-70. As the Imperial Army set out for a punitive expedition against China, she was at the station waving the Japanese Hinomaru flag to send off the soldiers. She received astonished looks and words of thanks from the soldiers who said, "Oh, young foreign lady, thank you!" for the care packages that she gave. Alongside these farewells at the station, she has followed the tradition of Sen'ninbari, creating them with diligence and sending them along with care packages. She has already sent six to the warriors on the battlefield and has received several letters of gratitude in return.

Impressed by her actions, the caring people of the district encouraged her to join the National Women's Defense Association. "I would be so happy if someone like me could join the National Women's Defense Association and work alongside you," she happily responded, joining the Kōgane-machi-2 sub-chapter of the association on the 29th of last month, painting a beautiful picture of support from the home front. As Shamseinoor stood at the storefront in place of her parents, working diligently, she said the following:

"I am very happy that, even as a child, I am entrusted with work that can contribute even a little for Japan. I have sent Sen'ninbari and care packages. However, I'll feel uncomfortable if my acts are reported in the newspaper, since it may be perceived as bragging. Now that I have been accepted into the National Women's Defense Association, I wish to be of service," she spoke in fluent Japanese.

Shamseinoor fled from Hailar with her parents when she was seven years old, and sought asylum in Japan. She studied for about half a year at Kasuga Elementary School in Kumamoto. She has been in Seoul for eleven years now, and she mentioned that she would like to get married there.

Additionally, a few days ago, a letter of thanks for a care package arrived from Mr. Watanabe Kyōichi, a brave soldier of the Kimura Unit on the Northern China front. It read: "Flowers like dandelions bloom innocently among graves, only to be trampled in the dust of war. Why have the Chinese not opened their eyes? I never dreamed of receiving a care package from a person of a different nation like yourself. I am truly grateful. To put your mind at ease, I will strive to accomplish great deeds in this punitive expedition against China."

[Transcription]

京城日報 1938年6月7日

銃後半島の固め

千人針の碧眼娘

可憐国婦の白襷姿で

悪魔の迫害に追われた碧眼の少女が皇軍の奮戦に蔭ながら感謝を捧げ慰問。千人針などを贈り異邦人として安住の地を得るのも一重に君恩の無辺な御慈悲と感激。か弱い女の腕ではあるが報恩の誠を尽くしたいと意を決し国防婦人会に入会して甲斐甲斐しく立働き麗しい佳話を投げかけている。

話題の少女は京城黄金町二の七〇洋服商シャ・ベリコフ氏の一人娘シャムセイヌル・ベリコフ娘（一九）で、暴支膺懲の征戦に皇軍が進発するや駅頭に日の丸の旗を打ちふって勇士を歓送し勇士達から『お、外国人のお嬢さん、有難う』と贈った慰問品に奇異な眼と感謝のこもった言葉を受けていた。こうした駅頭の歓送のかたわら、街頭に立って教えられた千人針のいわれを汲み、懸命になって千人針を作り慰問袋と共に既に六枚を戦地の勇士に贈り、戦地の勇士から数通の感謝の手紙を貰っている。

この篤行に同町の心ある人達は感心し国防婦人会に加入を勧誘。『私のような者でも国防婦人会に入れて貰って一緒にお仕事をさせて戴ければ、これほど嬉しいことはありません』と喜んで去る二十九日黄金町二の国防婦人会分会に加入。銃後の固めに麗しい情景を描いている。シャムセイヌル嬢は両親に代って店頭に立ち甲斐甲斐しい姿で立働いているが、

『私のような子供でも日本のために少しでもお役に立つ仕事をさせて貰えるのはとても嬉しいです。千人針や慰問袋も贈りました。それでもこんなことを新聞に書いて貰うといばるように見えて困るです。国防婦人会にいれて貰ったので、その方のお役に立ちたいと思います』と達者な日本語で語った。

シャムセイヌル嬢は七歳の時、両親と共にハイラルから追われて日本に亡命。熊本の春日小学校で半歳ほど勉強。京城へ移って既に十一年になり、京城で結婚したいと語っていた。

なお数日前、北支戦線木村部隊の勇士渡辺恭一氏から届いた慰問袋の礼状には、『墓タンポポの草花が無心に咲き揃ったのが戦塵に踏みにじられています。支那は何故目覚めぬのでしょう。国のちがったあなた方から慰問品を受けようとは夢にも思いませんでした。本当に感謝します。そしてあなた方に安心して貰うよう、うんと手柄をたて支那膺懲に努めます』とあった。（写真は碧眼の国婦会員シャムセイヌル嬢）

Source: https://archive.org/details/kjnp-1938-06-07/page/1/mode/1up

Keijo Nippo (Gyeongseong Ilbo) was Korea's largest newspaper at its peak, boasting the best exclusive news access provided by the colonial regime, the best American printing equipment, correspondents stationed all over the world, printing from Sept. 1906 to Dec. 1945 under 3 different governments

In December 1938, Keijo Nippo newspaper published a self-promoting advertisement on a full-page spread boasting about how it is the number-one newspaper in Korea in every respect: the largest newspaper in Korea with the largest readership, the largest staff, the most financial resources, the best exclusive news access in every part of Korea, the best printing equipment with the latest state-of-the-art rotary presses imported from the U.S.A., longstanding relationships with international press agencies such as the International News Service, United Press International, and Associated Press, and correspondents stationed all over the world including in Paris, New York, Berlin, London, Davao, Hawaii, and Occupied China. Thus, the Keijo Nippo newspaper is a very valuable source of insight into the kinds of information from both inside and outside the country that Koreans might have known about during colonial rule.

In December 1938, Imperial Japan was in the middle of the vicious Second Sino-Japanese War, but it was not experiencing privations to the extent that it would experience during the Second World War, because it still managed to benefit from relatively normal world trade and foreign investment with relatively few sanctions, including from Western countries like the U.K. and the U.S. That would change over the course of the next few years, as relations with the U.S. deteriorated to the point of war. 

This photo montage has a lot of things going on, but let's parse them out. The newspaper building was a cube-shaped brick building just a block away to the north from the then Seoul City Hall (京城府庁). It housed not only Keijo Nippo, but also Maeil Sinbo, the last Korean-language newspaper to remain in Korea after Dong-A Ilbo and Chosun Ilbo were shuttered in 1940. On top of the building is the flag of Seoul, which looks like a black-outlined circle sandwiched between two clamps. On the left side of the building are some slogans: one says "Don't let your guard down after victory! (勝って兜の緒を締めよ)", while the other one says, "Long-term construction is just the beginning (長期建設はこれからだ)" On the right side of the building are the names of its three publications: the Keijo Nippo (京城日報), Keinichi Shinpo (京日新報), and Keijo Nippo Elementary School Edition (京日小学生新聞). On the left side of the photo, staff members are at their desks drafting articles, and a cameraman is taking a picture with his news camera. To the center-bottom of the photo, a man is transcribing a news report which he is listening to over the phone. Above him is a rotary press manufactured by R. Hoe & Co., and below him are bundles of printed newspapers and the delivery trucks which will deliver them to all parts of Korea. On the right side of the photo, there are some workers setting the typesets to print the newspaper editions.

I also included an advertisement for the Elementary School Edition of Keijo Nippo, which was marketed to Korean children, especially with its rather blatant use of the word "second-class national people of Japan" (日本の第二国民). It goes to show the militaristic brainwashing that Korean children received under the colonial regime. This newspaper may have also been read by Korean adults who were studying Japanese.

In September 1906, the Keijo Nippo newspaper (known as Gyeongseong Ilbo in Korean) was founded by Itō Hirobumi to be a mouthpiece of the Office of the Japanese Resident-General of Korea, which controlled Korean foreign diplomatic affairs from 1905 to 1910, when Korea was formally annexed into Imperial Japan. The newspaper was formed by merging two existing Korean newspapers together: the Hanseong Sinbo (한성신보, 漢城新報) and the Daedong Sinbo (대동신보, 大同新報). It started out as a bilingual publication printing both Korean-language editions and Japanese-language editions, but in April 1907, the Korean-language edition of Gyeongseong Ilbo was discontinued. After the annexation of Korea in 1910, Keijo Nippo became the mouthpiece of the Governor-General's Office, the Imperial Japanese colonial government which controlled Korea from 1910 to 1945. 

The newspaper managed to keep publishing for a few months after Korea gained its independence on August 15, 1945, printing its last edition on December 11, 1945. Its printing equipment was subsequently taken over by Hanseong Ilbo (한성일보, 漢城日報) in early 1946. If you look at the logo of Hanseong Ilbo, you can see that they reworked the old Keijo Nippo logo a little bit and kept a similar calligraphy style to come up with the new newspaper logo. The Hanja fonts are identical to the Kanji fonts used in Keijo Nippo.

Keijo Nippo's Korean-language sister newspaper, Maeil Sinbo, printed its last edition in November 1945, then changed its name to Seoul Shinmun and printed its first edition under its new name on November 23, 1945. Today, the Seoul Shinmun skyscraper stands on the site of the old Keijo Nippo newspaper building. 

Today, physical copies of Keijo Nippo are stored at the National Library of Korea and Seoul National University Library. Microfilm copies of Keijo Nippo can be viewed at the Newspaper Reading Room of the National Diet Library in Tokyo, but with no photoduplication available or allowed. In October 2021, an anonymous user uploaded an extensive archive of Keijo Nippo covering 1905 to 1944, appearing to be digital scans of old microfilm. I accidentally stumbled across them just as they were being uploaded. The moment I recognized their historical significance, I decided to slowly prepare transcriptions and translations of these articles and share them online. However, there are many limitations, as the entire year of 1945 is omitted, many scanned pages are in terrible shape with tears, burn marks, and holes in many places, the quality of the digital scans themselves is often bad and makes the text illegible.  The National Library of Korea does provide high-quality scans of Keijo Nippo to the public, but only for a select few issues from the early 1930s and earlier.

Currently, the copyright for Keijo Nippo is held by some murky entities. According to one bookstore website, the "Tokyo High Court and National Diet Library authorizes the reprinted The Keijo Nippo( Kyŏngsŏng Ilbo) only by the publisher, SIM Han Bo,Hanʼguk Kyohoesa Munhŏn Yŏnʼguwŏn". That is, 한국교회사문헌연구원(韓國教會史文獻研究院). The website also says that professors at Waseda University legally go after anyone who repeatedly sells pirated editions. Only the 1905-1918 issues are available for purchase, for an exorbitant 490,000 yen. When ordering, three months are required for copyright processing to be completed. Another bookstore site, Komabook, offers a 20 DVD set containing the September 2, 1915 to December 11, 1945 issues of Keijo Nippo for a grand total of 2,908,500 Japanese yen, which is about $22,000 US Dollars at current exchange rates.

It would seem to me that withholding the content of Keijo Nippo from public release behind such a high paywall and such tight copyright restrictions is not in the public interest, especially as the actions of the Imperial Japanese colonial regime in Korea is of interest to people all over the world. But maybe there is a reasonable explanation for all of this?

My hope is that more of these archives can be made digitally available online for free and then translated more widely so that viewers all over the world can learn more about this very interesting part of Korean history.

(Translation)

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) December 26, 1938

The Dignified March of Keijo Nippo

The Great Reform of Our Press Organization along the Lines of the Leap Forward for Korea and the Rebuilding of East Asia

Bathed in the dawn of the New East Asia Cooperative, the Holy Sino-Japanese War is now rushing forward into the third spring of brilliant construction. After 30 years of rule, our Korean peninsula, which has embodied the great spirit of Hakkō Ichiu of which we are proud in world history, is also in lock step with the great strides of the Holy War, and is now playing the role of a "logistics base" in both material and moral aspects as we greet the first spring of the third year of the war. Keijo Nippo, as the honored head of the press agencies of home front Korea based on Japanese-Korean unification, is mobilizing all of its functions and personnel. With the sound of its high-speed rotary press working tirelessly, Keijo Nippo is celebrating a new spring of victorious journalism together with its loyal readers.

The Keijo Nippo has walked alongside the New Korea ever since it was welcomed at the time of its annexation, and Korea has experienced thirty years of unyielding progress ever since then. We have challenged ourselves to overcome superimposed difficulties together with the Young Korea. We have fought for each day to be filled with the light of happiness and peace, and we have won the present-day by smearing on it the words: "Leap Forward!". The history of Keijo Nippo, which was inaugurated by the first Chief Superintendent Itō Hirobumi, is also the history of the new century of the Korean peninsula.

It is well known in the pages of this newspaper just how active we have been during the Second Sino-Japanese War, based on the precious past legacy of tens of thousands of Keijo Nippo staff. Needless to say, the complete coverage of the various parts of home front Korea is the exclusive domain of this newspaper alone. We have sent special correspondents to bring back blood-drenched news of frontline Imperial troops deployed on mainland China destroying Chiang Kai-shek's forces. We have established bureaus and a special telegraph network in key areas of new construction, while extending our full coverage on the situation of the dying enemy regime. In the heart of Europe and the United States, which are on the verge of being re-divided by the total collapse of the Treaty of Versailles and the outbreak of a second world war, we have established a powerful and extensive special telegraph team in cooperation with the Yomiuri Shimbun to provide vigorous and hot news. The political and economic situation in mainland Japan, which is being reorganized in various fields, is being reported to the Korean peninsula from time to time without fail by the news axes in Tokyo, Osaka, and Seoul.

Thus, Keijo Nippo, as the largest newspaper on the Korean peninsula, is preparing for a great epoch-making leap forward in 1939. Please look forward to the news reporting of Keijo Nippo, which is undergoing a great reform along the lines of the Leap Forward for Korea and the Rebuilding of New East Asia.

This photo is a montage of Keijo Nippo's news reporting activities. It shows how the news comes to the head office from all parts of Korea, mainland Japan, mainland China, and from all over the world by telegraph and telephone every moment. Then the collected news are drafted, typeset into editions, printed on a rotary press, and then delivered to loyal readers in all of Korea. Our printing plant is the best in all of Korea with respect to its functionality, and it boasts a printing capacity of 300,000 copies per hour on two customized electric high-speed presses, as well as a multi-color high-speed press (manufactured by R. Hoe & Company). Thus, our press organization, fully equipped with human and material resources, is constantly working to provide fresh news and demonstrate their power.

The best facilities in all of Korea!

The Forefront of Wartime Journalism

A powerful and unparalleled communication network

Sharing moment-by-moment world developments to loyal readers in all of Korea

A network is also in place to report on the Sino-Japanese War

In order to accurately and promptly report on the ever-changing political, economic, and social situation in the world, this newspaper has formed a communications alliance with the Yomiuri Shimbun, the leader of the Tokyo newspaper industry, to develop a special telecommunications network, and set up a lightning-like news network around the world. In other words, through a tie-up with Yomiuri Shimbun, we have bureaus (correspondents) in Paris, New York, Berlin, and London, and special correspondents in Davao and Hawaii. We have absorbed special telegrams from the International News Service, one of the world's three most prestigious news agencies, along with United Press International and Associated Press. Our communications network related to the Sino-Japanese War is as follows, and is unrivaled by any other news organization on the Korean peninsula.　

• Permanent military correspondent in Unit [redacted] Shanxi Area
• Branch office in Beijing

Keijo Nippo Elementary School Edition

No one can say, "I am an elementary school student of the shining New Year" without getting the New Year's Day issue of the Keijo Nippo Elementary School Edition. The splendor of the New Year's Day issue of the newspaper is the best New Year's gift for a growing second-class national person of Japan.

There is an assault on a pillbox with live bullets! There is a bombardment by a fighter plane! The invincible march of tanks! If we sing a military song in the red sunset and dream in a field tent, our dreams will lead us home, but if we take up our bayonets and attack in full force, the cheers of 'Banzai!' for peace in East Asia will be as high as the wind carrying the Flag of the Great Rising Sun. Don't you all want to raise Chiang Kai-shek's head with this amazingly beautiful picture Sugoroku printed in four-color offset? The New Year's Day issue is sixteen pages. That is four times the page count of a daily newspaper. It is interesting and informative. There are four times as many wonderful articles, photographs, and manga as there are in a daily newspaper.

• The Governor-General's Story
• A children's story by the famous Katō Takeo
• The two-page manga series is a kingdom of laughter!
• Chinese New Year, Mongolian New Year, a tablespread for the New Year
• What will the air battle of the future be like? It will surely be very awesome.
• New Year's Games
• The World of Science
• Test your academic ability with the New Year Achievement Test

We can only tell you just a little bit about the wonders of the New Year's Day issue. If I were to tell you about the even more beautiful colored pages, I would be in big trouble. Let's all have fun in anticipation for New Year's Day. On New Year's Day, please pick up a copy of the Keijo Nippo Elementary School Edition and be surprised at how wonderful it is, how great it is, and how much you'll love it.

Free gift: The Sugoroku of the Imperial Army's Great Victory

Source: https://www.archive.org/details/kjnp-1938-12-26

(Transcription)

京城日報　1938年12月26日

堂々京日の進軍

躍進朝鮮と東亜再建の線に沿い報道体制の大革新

新東亜協同体の黎明を浴びて、聖戦支那事変は、いまや輝ける建設の第三春へと突進している。統治三十年、世界史に誇る八紘一宇の大精神の体現をなし遂げたわが半島も聖業の巨歩に足並みをそろえ、物心両面において『兵站基地』の役割を果たしつつ戦捷三たびの年の初春を迎えんとしている。そして、わが京城日報は、内鮮一体を基底とせる銃後朝鮮の光栄ある報道部門の首位を担当し、機能総動員、高速度輪転機不休の響きは、戦勝ジャーナリズムのさらに新しき春を、愛読者諸賢とともに謳歌せんとしているのである。

京城日報は併合と同時に迎えた新しき朝鮮とともに歩いた。三十年不屈の前進。重畳たる困難に対して青年朝鮮と共に挑戦した。そして、幸福と平和の光りに充ちみちている今日を―各界躍進の二字にぬりつぶされた今日を闘いとったのである。初代統監伊藤博文公によって封切られた京城日報の歴史は、その儘半島新世紀の歴史である。

過去幾万の京日部隊の尊き遺産のうえに立って、事変下における本紙がいかに活発な活躍をなしているかはすでにその紙面においてよく知られたところ―銃後半島の各部面に対する取材網の完璧なる布陣はひとり本紙にのみゆるされたる独壇場であることは申すまでもなく、大陸に展開されている滅蒋の前線部隊には相次いで特派員を使いして血の滴るようなニュースを送り、新建設の要地には、支局並びに特電網を配するとともに、滅びゆく敵政権の情勢にも万全の触手を伸ばしている。ヴェルサイユ体制の全面的な崩壊によって再分割の地図を描きつつ第二の世界戦争の危機をはらむ欧米の各心臓部には、読売新聞との提携による強力拡汎なる特電陣を整備、溌剌たるホットニュースを提供している。また、各方面において再組織が行われつつある内地の政治経済情勢は、東京、大阪、京城のニュース枢軸によって刻々半島への報道に遺憾なきを期している。

かくてわが京城日報は、半島最高最大の新聞としてさらに昭和十四年における画期的な大飛躍を準備しつつある。躍進朝鮮と新東亜建設の線に沿い大革新を行いつつある京城日報の報道戦果を御期待下さい。

この写真は京城日報社の報道活動を現わしたモンタージュ写真。全鮮各地から、内地から、支那大陸から、さらに世界各地から、電信、電話に乗って刻々本社へ集まって来るニュースが原稿となり活字に組まれ、版となり、輪転機にかかって印刷され、全鮮の愛読者に新聞が配達されるまでを示しています。本社の工場機能は、全鮮一を誇るもので、二台連結の京日式電光超高速度輪転機は一時間三十万の印刷能力を有し、このほか、多色刷超高速度輪転機（アール・ホー会社製）もその能率を誇っております。こうして、人的物的に完備したわが社の報道体制は不断の活動によって、清新なるニュースを提供し、その威力を示しているのであります。

全鮮一を誇る設備！

戦時ジャーナリズムの最前線

強力無比の通信網

世界各地の動きを刻々全鮮愛読者へ

事変報道網も整備

本紙は、変転極まりない世界の政治、経済、社会情勢を正確に迅速にキャッチ報道すべく、同盟通信によるほか特電網を整備するため現在、東都新聞界の驍将読売新聞社と通信提携をなして、全世界に電光のようなニュース網を布陣しております。すなわち同社とのタイアップによりパリ、ニューヨーク、ベルリン、ロンドンに支局（特派員）、ダヴァオ、ハワイに特置員を配置するとともに、UP・APとともに世界三大通信として権威をほこるインターナショナル・ニュース・サーヴィス社の全世界各地の特電を吸収しております。また本紙の事変関係通信網は現在左の如くで、断然半島他社の追随をゆるしません。　

• 山西方面〇〇部隊に従軍記者常置
• 北京に支局

京日小学生新聞

京日小学生新聞の元旦号を手にしないで『ぼくは輝く新しき年の小学生』などとはいいません。そのすばらしさ、京日小学生新聞元旦号こそ伸びゆく日本の第二国民に贈る最上のお年玉です。

肉弾トーチカに迫る突撃あり。荒鷲の爆撃あり。戦車隊の無敵進軍あり。赤い夕日に軍歌を歌って露営の夢を結べば夢は故郷へも通うが銃剣をとりなおして総攻撃にうつれば東洋平和の万歳は大日章旗の旗風とともに高い。オフセット四色刷の驚くほど美しい絵双六で蒋介石の首級をあげたいとは、皆さん、思いませんか。元旦号は十六ページ。それは日頃の新聞の四倍の分量です。面白い面白いためになる。すばらしい記事が、写真が、まんががひごろの四倍ぶんもあるのです。

• 総督様のお話
• 童話は有名な加藤武雄先生の作
• 二頁一ぱいのまんがはこれこそ面白い笑いの王国
• 支那のお正月、蒙古のお正月。お正月づくし。
• 未来の空中戦はどんなものか？さあ、どんな凄いものでしょう。
• お正月の遊戯
• 科学の世界
• 新年学力テストで皆さんの学力をためしてごらんなさい。

元旦号のすばらしさはホンのチョッピリだけおしらせしてもこのとおりです。この上なお美しい色刷ページのことなどおしらせしたら大へんです。皆さん元旦を楽しく待ちましょう。そして元旦に京日小学生新聞を手にとって『すばらしいな』『すごいね』『だからぼくは京日小学生新聞が大好きなんだ』と、びっくりして下さい。

おまけ：皇軍大勝双六

On October 10, 1938, the US women's amateur softball team arrived in Korea as part of their 4-month-long 1938 Pacific goodwill tour, introducing modern women's softball to Korea for the first time

 

According to other sources online, this was a four-month-long 1938 Pacific tour by the US women's softball team organized by sports promoter Marty Fiedler (links below). This was one year before the Commercial Treaty between USA and Japan was terminated in 1939, ending all US goodwill tours to Japan until they were restarted after the war. There was a mundane article immediately below the photo which I did not include, since it mostly explained the rules of softball, but it did add some more tidbits of info: the average age of the team was 17, they were amateurs, and it was the first time that women's softball was ever demonstrated in Japan. So I think it's safe to assume that, by extension, this was the first time that the sport was introduced to Korea.

(my partial translation - part of the caption　on the lower right corner was really smudged and pretty illegible, so I skipped it. My wild guess is that it says "in order to relieve tensions with wartime Japan...")

October 9, 1938 Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Ilbo)

A softball team of beautiful women arrives in Korea

A delegation of 51 members of the American Women's Tourist Softball Team is to arrive in Korea on the 10th on the Chichibu Maru vessel, which entered Yokohama, to promote friendship between Japan and the United States through sports. (photograph: the same team)

(my partial transcription - part of the caption on the lower right corner was really smudged and pretty illegible, so I skipped it)

昭和十三年十月九日　京城日報

来朝の美人野球団

スポーツによる日米親善を行おうというアメリカ女子観光野球球団一行五十一名は十日横浜入港の秩父丸で来朝する。【写真＝同チーム】

Sources:

https://archive.org/details/kjnp-1938-10-09

https://books.google.com/books?id=MiSLDgAAQBAJ&lpg=PA242&ots=KNGTprFcmn&dq=women's%20softball%20team%20japan%20visit%20%221938%22&pg=PA242#v=onepage&q=women's%20softball%20team%20japan%20visit%20%221938%22&f=false

https://www.wbsc.org/history-softball-origin

Reddit Link: On this day 83 years ago, the US women's amateur softball team arrived in Korea as part of their 4-month-long 1938 Pacific goodwill tour, introducing modern women's softball to Korea for the first time : korea (reddit.com)