1938 Italian Fascist Delegation to Korea – Imperial Japan welcomed 22 Fascists in Black Uniforms Led by Ambassador Marquis Paulucci

In April 1938, a 22-member Italian Fascist delegation visited Korea from the afternoon of April 23 until the evening of April 24. They had just spent roughly 40 days traveling throughout Japan proper before continuing through colonial Korea.

Despite spending only about 36 hours in Korea, the delegation received extraordinarily lavish newspaper coverage, with pages upon pages devoted to virtually every aspect of the visit. The reporting ranges far beyond official speeches and diplomatic ceremonies. It documents exchanges involving sports, cinema, food, music, Catholicism, martial arts, military affairs, and youth organizations. There were also numerous encounters with schoolchildren and ordinary people.

The delegation was headed by Marquis Giacomo Paulucci di Calboli Barone, an Italian diplomat whom Mussolini had appointed president of the Istituto Luce, the state-controlled film and newsreel organization that played a major role in Fascist propaganda. In many of the newspaper photographs from the trip, Paulucci appears relaxed, smiling, and unusually informal for someone heading such a heavily choreographed political mission.

Caption: Marquis Paulucci and Governor-General Minami Jiro shaking hands at the Government-General.

Original Caption: Women's National Women's Defense Association members greeting the delegation in front of Seoul Station

On the day of the visit, the front page of the newspaper prominently featured on the headline, in Italian, "Benvenuto alla Missione Fascista Amica Italiana al nome della tutta la Chosen" or "Welcome to the Friendly Italian Fascist Mission, in the Name of All Korea", accompanied by a prominent portrait of Paulucci and the Japanese and Italian flags in full color. Evidently, Imperial officials went all out to ensure that their guests felt welcome.

What makes these articles especially interesting to me is that they capture Italian, Japanese, and Korean cultures and languages encountering one another in very concrete, everyday ways. The newspapers record what the delegates ate, which Korean foods they tried, where they went, what they thought of the places they saw, and even some of their attempts at Korean expressions such as “aigo” and “komapsumnida.”

The religious dimension is also interesting. The delegation made a point of attending Catholic Mass at Myeongdong Cathedral, while also visiting Shinto shrines and making ceremonial offerings. 

I will try to share as much of this coverage as I can, divided into installments as time permits. Given the sheer volume of material, I may omit some of the longer ceremonial speeches when they do not appear to add much historical insight.

These newspapers preserve an unusually detailed record of a very brief visit, and much of the material is difficult to access unless one can read the original Japanese. I think the articles are fascinating primary sources, so I am making an effort to translate and share them here.

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo), April 24, 1938

VIVA L’ITALIA

Welcome! The Italian Delegation
Amid an Outpouring of Enthusiastic Cheers, the Italian Delegation Enters Seoul
Arrived Today at 1:10 P.M. by Special Train
The Entire City Buried in Welcoming Flags

Amid cheers filled with the heartfelt devotion of all Korea, the Fascist Mission to Japan swept through showers of blossoms and traversed the Korean peninsula, now budding in fresh spring green, aboard the special observation “black train.” At 1:10 p.m. on April 23rd, with the cherry blossoms everywhere in magnificent full bloom, the party was engulfed in a storm of fervent welcome as it arrived in the capital, Seoul, taking its glorious first step here as a mission for the ages.

The sacred Anti-Comintern alliance between Japan and Italy, firmly bound together by the ideals of the purification of the world and of justice, stood solemnly affirmed. Still plainly visible on their faces was the emotion of more than a month spent in mainland Japan, upon which they had lavished the highest praise as:

“the astonishing land of Yamato, the Land of the Rising Sun, where the beauty of nature and the intellectual activity of a heroic people come together.”

As the members of the mission stepped down onto the station platform, Director of Political Affairs Ōno and the others raised both hands to greet the emissaries of the allied nation with cries of emotion and enthusiasm.

Oh! Viva l’Italia!
(Long live Italy!)

Viva la Missione Fascista!
(Long live the Fascist Mission!)

The party was headed by Marquis Giacomo Paulucci di Calboli Barone, Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary and President of the state-run film L'Instituto Luce. It included Giovanni Belelli, member of the Chamber of Deputies and inspector of the National Fascist Party; Edoardo Rossi, of the General Command of the Fascist Youth Organization; Console Camillo Canali, representative of the Fascist Blackshirt Militia (MVSN); Dr. Orlando di Collalto, representative of the Ministry of Popular Culture; and Professor Antonio Casuli, representative of Fascist education, together with representatives of the various occupational and functional sectors.

The mission numbered eighteen members, with four accompanying staff. Embodying in spirit and bearing every stratum of Fascism, they were met by the fervor of the Korean peninsula. Thus, amid mounting emotion, the magnificent first page was written in the historic fellowship between Japan and Italy, as Korea’s heartfelt welcome and the emissaries of the allied nation came firmly together.

First, a Visit to the Chōsen Shrine

On this day the capital, Seoul, presented a scene worthy of welcoming the emissaries of an allied nation. The blossom-clouded sky gave way to brilliant clear weather, while from Seoul Station throughout the streets the green, white, and red flags of Italy crossed amicably with the Japanese Hinomaru, fluttering in the spring breeze as though themselves sharing in the excitement.

The central entrance of Seoul Station and the entrance to the VIP room had been splendidly decorated, with Italian flags bearing the royal crown displayed above them. At Namdaemun, where fresh ivy shoots were budding, the flags of Japan and Italy were likewise crossed, and a large sign reading BENVENUTO (“Welcome”) hung in the center. The entire decorated city was caught up in a whirl of excitement over the arrival of the delegation.

The platform was packed with some four hundred persons, beginning with Director of Political Affairs Ōno and including members of the Korean nobility, all imperial-appointed civil and military officials stationed in the capital, and representatives of various organizations.

At 1:10 p.m., pushing through a blizzard of cherry blossoms and amid a storm of cheers loud enough to rend the air, the black special goodwill train arrived with a powerful rhythm that seemed to shake the very earth.

From the panoramic observation car stepped Marquis Paulucci, the head of the mission, followed by the other delegates, all dressed in black Fascist uniforms. Brimming with energy, they descended with brisk, vigorous steps, displaying the strict discipline of the Party. With their leader at the front, all twenty-two members of the party formed ranks.

In answer to the deafening cries of “Viva l’Italia!”, Marquis Paulucci and the other delegates raised their right hands high in the Fascist salute. Director of Political Affairs Ōno stepped forward and exchanged an emotional handshake with the Marquis, as the excitement around them swelled like a great wave.

Led by Stationmaster Haruta, the delegation then entered the VIP room, where they were introduced to the representatives of government and the public who had come to receive them. These included Central Council advisers Min Byeong-sang (閔丙爽, 민병상), Yi Yun-yong (李允用, 이윤용), and Yun Deok-yeong (尹徳栄, 윤덕영); Shinoda, head of the Office of the Yi Royal Household; Yoshida, Director of the Railway Bureau; Nakayama, head of the Army Accounting Department; Hayami, president of Keijō Imperial University; Kanja, the Governor of Gyeonggi Province; Saeki, mayor of Seoul; Kada, president of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry; and others.

At that moment fireworks burst in the spring sky, while the crowd of well-wishers in the square before the station continued to grow.

When the members of the mission formed ranks outside the VIP room, the Railway Bureau brass band struck up the Italian national anthem. The delegates responded by raising their right hands in the Party salute.

They then divided among fourteen waiting automobiles. From the station along Namdaemun Avenue, tens of thousands of schoolchildren and members of various organizations lined the streets in a sea of flags, while passionate cries of “Viva l’Italia!” rose from the crowds.

The delegation proceeded first to the Chōsen Shrine. Deeply impressed by the solemnity of the sacred grounds, glowing in the fresh green of spring, the delegates bowed before the shrine. Marquis Paulucci presented a tamagushi offering, and then raised his right hand in the Fascist salute.

Looking down from the shrine grounds upon the capital Seoul, buried beneath cherry blossoms, the visitors praised it as:

“A city that preserves the atmosphere of an ancient capital, yet at the same time is making a magnificent leap forward.”

They then returned to their automobiles and, passing once again through the storms of welcome lining the route, headed for the Government-General.

A Firm Handshake with Governor-General Minami

After visiting the Chōsen Shrine, the delegation arrived at the Government-General at 2:15 p.m.

Before their arrival, three section chiefs, Usui of Personnel, Isaka of Documents, and Fujimoto of Accounts, had assembled at the main entrance to receive them.

The members of the delegation stepped from more than a dozen automobiles and formed ranks before the entrance, once again displaying the strict discipline of the Fascist organization.

They were then conducted by Matsuzawa, head of the Foreign Affairs Department, through the main entrance and the great central hall into the First Conference Room.

Prior to their arrival, bureau and section chiefs of the Government-General and the governors of the various provinces had formed two ranks on the right side of the throne dais.

Governor-General Minami, formally attired in the dress uniform of an army general, entered the First Conference Room accompanied by Director of Political Affairs Ōno, Secretaries Kondō and Amaya, and Special Adviser Tōgō, and awaited the delegation.

Presently the visitors entered, led by Marquis Paulucci. They formed a single rank on the left side of the throne dais, facing the officials of the Government-General.

Governor-General Minami stepped forward and exchanged a very firm handshake with the Marquis.

It was a deeply moving scene: nothing less than a “handshake for the ages” symbolizing Japanese-Italian friendship.

The Marquis next shook hands with Director of Political Affairs Ōno. Then, following introductions by Foreign Affairs Department chief Matsuzawa, the Governor-General and Vice-Governor-General shook hands with each of the members of the delegation.

The Government-General officials then returned to their places and saluted. The Italian party responded by raising their right hands high in the Fascist salute.

Governor-General Minami stepped forward and, through Secretary Ogawa who interpreted, delivered the welcoming remarks printed elsewhere.

When he had finished, a toast was proposed with chilled sake. Marquis Paulucci then delivered a reply, after which another toast was raised.

Thus ended the delegation’s dramatic exchange of cordiality with the senior leadership of the central administration.

Accompanied by Governor-General Minami, the party then emerged from the main entrance and posed for a commemorative photograph, with Minami and Marquis Paulucci at the center.

Seen off by the Governor-General, the Vice-Governor-General, and the other officials, the delegation departed for the official residence of the Commander of the Korean Army in Yongsan.

Marquis Paulucci Replies to Governor-General Minami

In response to Governor-General Minami’s address of welcome, Marquis Paulucci, head of the Italian delegation, spoke as follows:

Your Excellency, ladies and gentlemen:

On behalf of myself and all the members of the Fascist national delegation, I offer my heartfelt thanks for the gracious words of welcome that you have just extended to us on behalf of the officials and people of Korea.

At the same time, I wish to express my sincere respect for the consideration shown in arranging for the presence here today of Their Excellencies the governors of the thirteen provinces.

Their attendance demonstrates the profound respect felt throughout the peninsula, among officials and civilians alike, toward Italy, and also manifests the welfare and peace established through the fusion of Japan and Korea as subjects of Japan.

We have been able to observe that, under the direction of the powerful Japanese Government, the political and economic development of Korea is proceeding rapidly, and that the union of Japanese blood and culture, built up over a long history, is becoming ever deeper both materially and spiritually.

Korea, which occupies an important geographical position and constitutes an important element of the Japanese Empire, has been united with Japan. I believe that the achievement here of a complete fusion of the Japanese and Korean peoples offers a guarantee of lasting peace on the Asian continent.

I would add that what has crowned the important geographical mission of Korea with still greater distinction is the conclusion last year of the Japanese-German-Italian Anti-Comintern Agreement.

This agreement represents an advance far surpassing even the ideal world envisioned by the League of Nations.

Your Excellency, how fortunate we should be if we were able to remain for an extended period and observe more fully this land over which Your Excellency exercises such brilliant rule in pursuit of lofty aims.

Our delegation will carry back to Italy the many joyful memories of this visit, and it will be our pleasure to tell our countrymen how Korea is developing today.

I now raise my glass and offer my wishes for the happiness and prosperity of all the people of Korea.

In Reply to Army Commander Koiso

In response to the welcome extended by Army Commander Koiso, Marquis Paulucci spoke as follows:

All of us in the delegation have spent several extremely pleasant weeks in Japan proper, and we are now most delighted to have had the opportunity, however brief and hurried our visit may be, to see this beautiful Korean Peninsula.

We fully understand the great importance of the security of this peninsula.

Our mother country, Italy, understands well the conditions by which true peace is brought about.

From the bottom of my heart, I offer my thanks for the profound sentiments Your Excellency has expressed toward the armed forces of Italy.

Korean Products Presented to the Delegation as Souvenirs

On the occasion of the Italian delegation’s visit to Korea, Governor-General Minami presented the members of the party with the following products of the peninsula as souvenirs:

1. 1. Korean ginseng
   2. Cigarettes produced by the Government-General Monopoly Bureau
   3. Tablecloths depicting Korean scenery

The Seoul municipal authorities also presented the delegation with Goryeo-style ceramic vases.

Heaven and Earth, Dark and Yellow

The Italian Goodwill Delegation arrives in Seoul; all Korea turns out to give it a great welcome.

May these voices of welcome echo as far as the mountains and rivers of Italy.

And through the fervor of this welcome, may the bonds of friendship linking Japan and Italy grow ever firmer.

Prime Minister Konoe has recovered his health. At a Cabinet meeting he declared that, with renewed spirit, he would devote himself to affairs of state. For the moment, the political situation has therefore stabilized.

Carp streamers flutter in the great sky.

This year, in particular, they appear exceptionally gallant and heroic.

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo), April 23, 1938

Benvenuto alla Missione Fascista Amica Italiana al nome della tutta la Chosen

Welcome to the Friendly Italian Fascist Mission, in the Name of All Korea

Editorial

Welcome to the Italian Delegation

Welcome, Italian Goodwill Delegation!
Led by Marquis Paulucci
All Korea Rises to Welcome the Delegation of Our Friendly Nation, Italy

Now, with the cherry blossoms in full bloom and both nature and mankind alike brimming with vigorous life, the joy with which the twenty-three million people of the Korean peninsula welcome the goodwill delegation from our allied nation, Italy, is something that words alone cannot adequately express.

We earnestly hope that the members of the delegation will recognize, wherever they travel throughout the peninsula, the true sincerity and wholehearted devotion of our compatriots, and that they will fully savor the spectacle of mountains and rivers everywhere filled with an air of rejoicing.

We have no doubt that, in Tokyo, in Osaka, and in the various other places they have already visited, the members of the delegation have encountered the spirit and vigor of the Japanese people as a whole, and have come to understand how sincerely Japan and the Japanese nation are devoting themselves to unity and cooperation with our allied nation, Italy.

At the same time, we believe that through all they have experienced during the course of this journey, they have come to understand fully what Bushidō means and what constitutes the true essence of the Imperial Way spirit.

◇

And now, as the members of the delegation pass through the peninsula, we fervently hope that, in witnessing the diligence and industriousness of our twenty-three million compatriots, their harmony and cooperation, and the true condition of the rapidly advancing industry and culture of the peninsula, they will recognize that wherever the spirit of the Imperial Way advances, the peace, welfare, and enlightenment of the masses necessarily follow.

◇

The world today stands at a great turning point and faces a new age.

At the center of that new age, and serving as its leaders, stand none other than the anti-Comintern camp centered upon Japan, Italy, and Germany.

Strangely enough, these three countries are entirely in accord in their spirit and vigor. In terms of their significance in world history, and in the fact that each is a modern nation advancing with remarkable speed, they seem to have been entrusted with a special mission for the new age.

Indeed, we must move resolutely forward, the anti-Comintern camp united as one, with a proud and independent spirit, toward the fulfillment of this great mission bestowed upon us by Heaven.

Here, therefore, while expressing our heartfelt welcome to the delegation, we also declare our convictions and pledge to strengthen our unity.

Photo captions: Upper photo: Marquis Paulucci and Governor-General Minami shaking hands at the Government-General; Lower Photo: Women's National Women's Defense Association members greeting the delegation in front of Seoul Station.

[Transcription]

京城日報 1938年4月24日

Viva L'Italia
歓迎！伊太利使節団
溢れる熱狂的歓呼裡に
伊太利使節団入城
きょう午后一時十分着特別列車で
全市、歓迎の小旗に埋る

全朝鮮の赤誠こもる歓呼の裡に訪日ファシスト使節団一行は花吹雪を衝いて新緑萌ゆる半島を特別展望”黒色列車”で縦断爛漫の桜花咲き誇る二十三日午後一時十分熱烈なる歓迎の嵐を浴びて首都京城に世紀の使節として晴の第一歩を印した。

世界浄化と正義の理想に固く結ばれた日伊防共の聖盟も厳かに『自然の美と英雄的民衆の智的活動が相合し驚くべき大和の国、日出ずる国』と絶讃を贈った月余に亘る内地での感激を再び眉宇にみなぎらせて駅頭フォームに降り立てば、大野政務総監始め双手を挙げて感激と熱狂の歓呼をもって盟邦の使節を迎える。

おお！ヴィヴァ・リタリア（伊太利万歳）、ヴィヴァ・ラ・ミッショーネ・ファシスタ！（ファシスト使節団万歳）

一行は特別全権大使兼国営映画ルーチェ総裁ジャコモ・パウリッチ・ディ・カルボーリ・バローメ侯を団長に、ファシスト党代表ジョヴァンニ・ベレルリ下院議員、ファシスト少年団総司令エドアルド・ロッシ将軍、国防国民軍代表カミーロ・カナーリ将軍、民衆文化省代表オルランド・ディ・コラルト博士、ファシスト教育代表アントニオ・カスーリ教授以下各職能代表を網羅した使節十八名（随員四名）でファシスト各階層の心魂、姿態の代表者で半島の熱誠と盟邦使節が固く交す日伊の歴史的交驩の豪華なる第一頁はかくて感激と燃えあがった。

先ず朝鮮神宮に参拝

この日、首都京城は盟邦使節を迎えるにふさわしい花曇りから日本晴れへ、京城駅頭から街路はいたるところ緑、白、赤のイタリー国旗と日の丸の旗が仲よく交叉して春風に翩翻と感激のはためきだ。盛装して待つ京城駅中央入口、貴賓室入口には王冠のある伊国国旗を掲げ蔦の新芽萌える南大門も日伊両国旗交叉して中央にベンベヌート（歓迎）の大額を掲げて盛装街は全く使節歓迎の興奮の渦巻。

プラットフォームには大野政務総監を始め朝鮮貴族、在城全勅任文武官、各種団体代表約四百名でギッシリと埋められた。

午後一時十分桜吹雪をかき分けて破れるような歓呼の嵐の中に黒色特別親善列車は地軸を揺がす力強いアクセントで到着。全展望車から黒いファシスト服で固めた団長パウリッチ侯以下使節は元気一杯に溌剌とした足どりで降り立ち厳格な党律を見せ、団長先頭に一行二十二名は整列。ヴィヴァ・リタリアの破れる歓迎の嵐に答えてパウリッチ侯以下何れも右手を高く翳してファシスト最高の敬礼、大野政務総監進んで感激の握手を交して興奮の怒濤なる。次いで春田駅長の先導で貴賓室に入り、出迎えの官民代表閔丙爽、李允用、尹徳栄各中枢院顧問、篠田李王職長官、吉田鉄道局長、中山軍経理部長、速水城大総長、甘蔗京畿道知事、佐伯府尹、賀田商工会頭らと面接を終る。

この時春空に花火が炸裂、駅頭広場は新に増す歓迎の群集、貴賓室広場で使節一行整列すれば鉄道局ブラスバンドは伊国国歌を吹奏すれば使節は右手を挙げての党律の挨拶で応え待ち構えた十四台の自動車に分乗駅頭から南大門通りを埋めた数万の学童、各種団体の旗の波と『ヴィヴァ・リタリア』の熱狂の歓声沸きあがる中を朝鮮神宮へ参拝、新緑萌える神苑の荘厳さに胸打たれ神前に拝礼してパウリッチ団長玉串を奉奠、右手をあげてファシスト最高の拝礼を終る。境内から桜に埋まれた首都京城の街を眺望『古都のおもかげを秘めしかも素晴らしき飛躍の街』と賞讃して再び自動車で沿道埋める歓迎の嵐を潜って総督府へ向った。

南総督と固き握手

朝鮮神宮に参拝した一行は午後二時十五分本府に到着する。これより先き本府正面玄関には碓井人事、井坂文書、藤本会計三課長が出迎える。十数台の自動車から降り立った一行は正面玄関に整列。ファシストの規律正しい處を見せる。やがて松沢外務部長の案内で正面玄関から中央大ホールを通って第一会議室に入場する。これより先、第一会議室には玉座右側に本府各局課長、各道知事が二列横隊に整列すれば南総督は陸軍大将普通礼服に威儀を正し、大野政務総監、近藤、天谷両秘書官、東郷御用掛を帯同して第一会議室に臨み一行を待つ。やがてパウリッチ侯を先頭とする一行は入場。玉座左側に本府側職員と相対して一列横隊に整列すれば南総督は進んでパ団長と固い固い握手が交わされる。これこそ日伊親善”世紀の握手”である感激の一シーンであった。

次いで大野政務総監と握手が交わされ、続いて松沢外務部長の紹介で総督、政務総監は団員一同に握手をなして本府側自席に就き一同敬礼すれば一行は右手を高く差し上げファシストの敬礼によってこれに答礼。総督は一歩前進小川書記官の通訳によって別項の如き歓迎の挨拶を述べ終って冷酒の乾盃をなせば使節団団長パウリッチ侯これに対して挨拶を行い再び乾盃を挙げて、ここに半島に於ける施政首脳部との劇的交驩を終り、南総督の案内で一行は正面玄関に現れ南総督、パ団長を中心に記念撮影をなし、総督、政務総監以下の見送裡に龍山朝鮮軍司令官官邸に向った。

南総督の挨拶にパ団長の挨拶

南総督の歓迎の辞に対し伊太利使節団長パウリッチ侯は左の如き挨拶をなした。

閣下並に各位、朝鮮官民を代表して只今御懇篤なる御挨拶を頂きましたことは私並にファシスト国民使節団一行の衷心より感謝する所であります。

同時に本日茲に十三道知事閣下の列席を得、半島疆内官民の伊太利に対する深甚なる敬意と日本臣民としての内鮮融合を確立せる福祉と平和とを表され下さいました御配慮に対し衷心より敬意を表する次第であります。

強大なる日本政府の御指導の下に朝鮮の政治、経済は急速なる進展をなし永き歴史に渉れる日本人の血液文化の結合は物質的にも精神的にも益々その度を高めつつあることを知り得ました。

日本帝国の重大要素として地理的にも重大なる朝鮮は日本と合体し同時にこの完全なる内鮮民の融合を見たことはアジア大陸永遠の平和を約束するものであると信じます。殊に地理的に重大なる朝鮮の使命に錦上花を添うるものは昨年の日独伊三国防共協定の締結であることを申上げたい。而してこの協定は国際聯盟の理想境よりも遥かに優る進歩であります。閣下若し閣下が高遠なる目的を目指し輝かしい御統治をなさるるこの土地に我々使節団一行の長期に亘る滞在を得て視察し得るならば私共はどんなにか幸いでありましょう。

我々視察団一行はこの喜悦溢るる記憶の数々を伊太利に持ち帰り朝鮮が現在如何に発展しつつあるかを語り得るを我々の喜びとする所であります。茲に盃を揚げて朝鮮の各位の御多幸と御隆昌とを祈ります。

小磯軍司令官の挨拶に対し

小磯軍司令官の歓迎に対しパウリッチ団長は左の如き挨拶をなした。

私共使節団一同は洵に愉快なる数旬を日本内地に過し今また飛脚的ではありますが、この美しい朝鮮半島を訪問することを得ましたのは最も欣快とする所であります。

私共はこの半島の安全なることが如何に重大なるかを充分諒知しておるのであります。

吾等の母国伊太利は真の平和の齎さるる所以をよく解するものであります。

私は衷心より閣下が伊太利国軍に与えられた深甚なる挨拶に対し感謝を表するものであります。

使節団一行に鮮産の土産

伊太利使節団の来鮮に際し南総督は一行に対する半島のお土産として左の品々を贈った

一、朝鮮人参

一、総督府専売局煙草

一、朝鮮風景を描けるテーブルクロス

なお京城府では一行に高麗焼花瓶を贈った。

天地玄黄

伊太利親善使節団来城、全鮮を挙げての大歓迎。

この歓呼の声、イタリーの山河にまでこだませむ。

しかしてこの歓迎の熱誠、日伊両国を結んで親善の実いよいよ固からむ。

近衛首相健康回復、心機一転政務に努力せむと閣議で挨拶。これにて政局一先ず安定。

大空にはためく鯉幟、今年に特に勇ましくも雄々しく眼に映ず。

京城日報 1938年4月23日

Benvenuto alla Missione Fascista Amica Italiana al nome della tutta la Chosen

社説
伊国使節団歓迎
歓迎！イタリー親善使節団！
使節団長パウリッチ侯
朝鮮は挙げて友邦伊太利使節団を歓迎

正にこれ桜花爛漫、人天倶に生気溌剌たるの時、半島二千三百万民衆が、盟邦イタリー親善使節団一行を迎うるの歓びは、言辞を以てよく尽す能わざるところ、希くは一行諸氏が半島到る處に於いて接するところの、我等同胞の誠心誠意の存ずるところを諒察せられ、山河の喜色に充ち満てる実状を満喫せられむことを切望して止まぬものである。

諸氏は既に東京に於いて、大阪に於いて、将た又他の各地に於いて、全日本国民の精神意気に接せられ、また、日本及日本国民が盟邦イタリーに対して、如何に心からなる団結協力の誠を致しつつあるかを察知せられたることを信じて疑わぬ。同時に諸氏が今回の旅行に方りて、随所に於いて体験せられたるところにより武士道の如何なるものであり、皇道精神の本義の如何なるものであるかを、十分に諒知せられたることを信ずるものである。

◇

而して諸氏は今半島を過ぐるに方り、半島二千三百万同胞の精励勤勉と親和協力と躍進する半島の産業文化の実相に接して、皇道精神の以て進むところ、大衆の平和と福利と光明の必然性を認得せられるべきを待望措かぬものである。

◇

今や世界は正に一大転換期にあり、新時代に直面しつつあるのであるが、その新時代の中軸たり、また指導者たるものは、実に日本、イタリー、ドイツを中心とする防共陣営に外ならぬ。而して此の三国は不思議にもその精神意気に於いて全く相通ずるものあり、その世界史的意義に於いて、何れも近代的躍進国であることに於いて、新時代への特殊使命を賦課されたるかの観がある。否、我等は此の天賦の大使命の達成に向って、防共陣営一体となって、自主の意気高く邁進しなければならぬ。我等はここに心からなる歓迎の意を表すると同時に、我等の所信を愬えて団結を固くせむことを誓うのである。

写真説明：（上）は本府にて南総督とパ団長の握手（下）は京城駅前国防婦人会員の使節団歓迎

Source: Digital Newspaper Archive, National Library of Korea

See also:

• Coverage of Nazi German newspaper delegation in Korea, May 1939 (link)
• Coverage of Fascist Spain's delegation in Korea, July 1940 (link)

How Korean numbers (하나,둘,셋…) are related to Japanese numbers (hito-, futa-, mit-…), as explained by 1938 Japanese linguistics article from colonial regime

I ran into this interesting linguistics article in the June 1938 issue of "Chōsen" (Korea), published as an official propaganda magazine of the Imperial Japanese colonial regime which controlled Korea from 1905 until 1945. A linguist named Nishimura attempts to explain how the native Korean numerals (hana, dul, set) are related to the native Japanese numerals (hito-, futa-, mit-). I am not a modern linguist, so I cannot vouch for the accuracy or quality of this paper. Nonetheless, since the information contained in this paper do not appear anywhere else on the Internet, I thought it would be appropriate to post it here for modern readers to analyze and critique. 

Nishimura often refers to numerals from the Middle Korean language, so the Korean numerals that he mentions in this paper may not necessarily be the modern ones that are used. For example, he gives the Korean number three as 서 (seo) , when the modern Korean number three is actually 셋 (set). To read up on historical Koreanic numerals from ancient times through present day, I recommend reviewing this Koreanic numerals table from Wikipedia. 

The author had a colonialist agenda of justifying the 'Japanese-Korean Unification' policy of suppressing Korean national identity, so this paper should be read in that context, understanding that scholars affiliated with the colonial regime had every incentive to produce research that supported the policies of the regime. There is a possibility that the arguments contained in this paper may have well been used by regime officials to teach Japanese to Koreans during colonial rule.

[Translation]

Japanese-Korean Numerals Common Origins Theory

By Nishimura Shintarō

The comparative study of numerals in both Japanese and Korean languages has traditionally faced difficulties and ended in failure. Consequently, many domestic and foreign scholars have pessimistically declared that Japanese and Korean numerals do not share the same origin. This widespread denial of their common origin is a significant regret in this field.

Many of those who propose theories argue for a closer relationship between Korean numerals and those of various ethnic groups in Central Asia, thereby ignoring the common origin of Japanese and Korean numerals. However, I, without regard to the paucity of evidence, assert their common origins as follows. Whether it is true or not, before I definitively conclude, I first offer this to the deniers and also express my profound respect to my mentor, Dr. Kanazawa Shōzaburō, who has resolutely and independently proposed the theory of the common origin of the fundamental concepts of numerals in both languages for some years.

When the fundamental numerals, which are essential for language comparison, align and correspond between Japanese and Korean, we can gain an unmatched driving force in all aspects of Japanese-Korean Unification. Contrary to the theories of the deniers, who argue that such correspondence is impossible and fundamentally overturns the common origin of the two languages, replacing it with one of the Central Asian language families, the negative impact of such a stance is immeasurable, and it is something that genuinely alarms me.

We should not resolve the truth politically, but when the results of truth align with politics, we must respect it as the natural order. Although the roots of both languages may have originated from the Tianshan mountains and moved eastward, cultivating numerous language families, if the numerals in Japanese, Ryukyuan, and Korean are entirely identical, discarding them to merely discuss the southern or northern routes of the Tianshan would be an inversion of cause and effect.

I believe that we must first establish the complete correspondence of numerals in both languages and then use this as a basis for comparing with other languages like Jurchen, Mongolian, etc.

[Number 1] In Japanese, words like 端 (hana), 初 (hana), 端 (hata), 初 (hatsu), 果 (hate) signify the idea of an extremity or endpoint, and are used in various forms such as 放す (hanasu - to release), 離る (hanaru - to separate), 果つ (hatsu - to end), 削る (hatsuru - to pare), 始じむ (hajimu - to begin). 端 (hata), 果 (hate) correspond to the Korean word 귿 (end). The sounds 'n', 't', and 's' are interrelated, hence Japanese words like 端 (hana), 初 (hana), 梯 (hashi - bridge, ladder), 果つ (hatsu - to end), 削る (hatsuru - to pare) correspond to 귿 in Korean.

The number one is pronounced in Japanese as ヒ (hi), ヒト (hito), ヒトツ (hitotsu), etc. ヒト (hito) can be a variation of ヒタ (hita - pure, straight, large). Derived words like ヒトシ (hitoshi - equal), ヒタスラ (hitasura - merely) are based on ヒト (hito).

In Korean, the number one is 하나 (hana), 한 (han), but in the ancient language, it was 하단 (hadan), and there is also another word 올 (ol), which does not denote an ordinal number but simply means 'alone', 'solely'. This also has many corresponding words in Japanese.

The t sound of 하단 (hadan) changes to an 'n' sound, becoming 하나 (hana). This change is similar to how Japanese 端 (hata) becomes 端 (hana). However, it is not necessary to directly compare these changes.

In the "Miscellaneous Considerations about the Idu Script" by literary scholar Dr. Kanazawa, it is stated that the number one was read as "Katana" according to the Nichūreki Encyclopedia. The Goryeo (Korean) language word 하단 (hadan) shows phonetic alignment with "Katana".

The reason why "Katana" and 하단 (hadan) align is the same reason 하단 (hadan) aligns with 귿 (end).

In Japanese, a slight vowel change in ハタ (hata - end), ハナ (hana - end) results in ヒト (hito - one). The connection between ヒト (one) and all words in this category such as ハタ (end) need not be elaborated further here.

ヒト (one) aligns in both phonetics and semantics with 하단 (hadan) and 하나 (hana) via 귿 (keut).

[Number 2] The number two is 두 in Korean, and フ (fu), フタ (futa), フタツ (futatsu), etc., in Japanese. There are several derived words from 두, such as:

(A) 뚜에 (lid): Without a bottom, there cannot be a lid (フタ - futa). 뚜에 covers the top of the bottom. It inherently contains the meaning of 두.

(B) 뒤 (behind): There is no behind without a front. If you dissect 뒤, it reduces back to 두. 뒤 is a derivative of 두.

(C) There are many others, but they are omitted here.

Now, if you remove the 'フ' (fu) from フタ (lid) and remove the 'ア' (a) from アト (behind), they become 'タ' (ta) and 'ト' (to), naturally aligning in meaning and sound with the Korean 뚜에 and 뒤. The hard sound in 뚜에 is a symbol of omitting one sound, and the 'ア' in アト (behind) is an article, used in the same way as in アツカウ (to handle), アコガル (to scorch), etc.

In Japanese, the number two is called フタ (futa), and in Korean, it is 두. In Japanese, a lid is called フタ, meaning two, and in Korean, a lid is called 뚜에, meaning 두 (two).

The Japanese フタ (two) directly corresponds in sound and meaning with the Korean 두 (two).

There are derivative words of フタ (two) in Japanese, like upper abbreviated 'タ' (ta) and lower abbreviated 'フ' (fu), and similarly, there are numerous derivatives of 두 in Korean, both upper and lower abbreviated. The proof that all these correspond exactly, such as 'アタカモ' (just like, atakamo) being exactly the same in sound as 똑 (just like, ttok), is innumerable, but this will be left for another day.

[Number 3] The number three is 서 (seo) in Korean and ミ (mi) in Japanese.

In the "Samguk Sagi" (Three Kingdoms History), Geography, Volume 4, there is a mention of "Samhyeon County," which was once called "Milpahe." This shows that in ancient Korean, the number three was referred to as 밀 (mil), but as it is now a dead language, this will not be discussed further.

The word for water caltrop is 말 (mal) in Korean, and its meaning is similar to the concept of a grain with edges (稜 - kuri) in Japanese.

Soba (buckwheat) is a grain with three edges (三稜 - mikuri). The 'バ' (ba) in Soba (ソバ) corresponds to 말 in Korean. This is because buckwheat (모밀), wheat (밀), barley (보리), and water caltrop (말) all belong to the same linguistic block. Therefore, the 'バ' in ソバ can be regarded as 말. The 'ソ' (so) in Soba (ソバ) is indisputably associated with the meaning of three. Supporting evidence can be found in the word ソヤ (soya - a type of arrow), where 'ヤ' (ya - arrow) is limited to three feathers, indicating that this 'ソ' (so) also means three. Therefore, it is necessary to conclude that the ancient Japanese reading of the numeral three was 'ソ' (so). Ultimately, 'ソ' (so) and 서 (seo) coincide, and the numerals for three in both languages completely match.

If it is to be proven that this originated from the Jurchen language, that discussion shall be reserved for another time.

[Number 4] The number four is 너 (neo), 너히 (neohi), etc., in Korean, and ヨ (yo) in Japanese.

The term 柶 (ladle) in Korean is 늇 (nyut), which refers to the concept of four trees all looking up towards the sky, hence called 늇 (four directions upwards). There are instances where 늇 is used to represent six trees in divination, and the divination using eight trees is known as the well-known Bagua.

The divination method of laying a single tree in a supine crossed position is practiced by various ethnic groups across the Asian continent, and whether this method exists in mainland Japan is a subject of interesting ethnological research.

It is speculated that the divination method with four trees, 늇, evolved into 너, 네, etc., and then lost its 'n' sound to become 'ヨ' (yo) in Japanese. However, there remains some room for debate regarding this transformation.

[Number 5] The number five is 닷 (dat) in Korean and イツ (itsu) in Japanese. The abbreviated form of イツ (itsu) is 'イ' (i), but this is definitely not the correct pronunciation for five. The 'イ' (i) in イツ is an article, commonly referred to as an introductory or exclamation word. The word with 'イ' (i) removed, leaving 'ツ' (tsu), corresponds to 닷 (dat) in Korean.

[Number 6] The number six is 엿 (yeot) in Korean, which has almost no relation to ム (mu) in Japanese. Initially, it was referred to as 엿, but later it seems that an 'm' sound was inserted, as in ムベ (mube - to declare) and ムマ (muma - horse) in Japanese. However, regrettably, this explanation is not fully established.

[Number 7] The number seven is 닐곱 (nilgop) in Korean and ナナ (nana) in Japanese.

In the "Samguk Sagi" (Three Kingdoms History), Geography, Volume 4, there are references to a "Seven-layered Castle" called 난은별 (Naneunbyeol) in one instance and a "Layered Castle" in another. Also, in the "Yeoji Seungram" (Survey of the Geography of Korea), Gyeonggi Section, there is a mention of the name of a district, Jikseong, referred to as "Seven-layered Castle," "Layered Castle," and 내별 (Naebyeol). 

Naneunbyeol corresponds to 난은 (nan-eun) and ナナ (nana), and Nae in Naebyeol corresponds to 내 (nae) and ナ (na). From the Hanja (Chinese characters) translation of these names as "Seven-layered Castle," it is clear that the ancient Korean word for seven was '나' (na), corresponding to ナナ (nana).

The ancient words 나 (na), 내 (nae) evolved into 니 (ni), and 니롭 (nilrop - cattle and horses at the age of seven) eventually came to be called 닐곱 (nilgop). This change is as evident as seeing fire, and ultimately, ナナ (nana) corresponds to 닐곱 (nilgop).

[Number 8] The number eight is ヤ (ya) in Japanese and 여듧 (yeodeol) in Korean. ヤ (ya) and 여 (yeo) correspond to each other, but the meaning of 듧 (deol) is difficult to determine immediately. 닐곱 (nilgop - seven), 여듧 (yeodeol - eight), 아홉 (ahop - nine) - the '곱' (gop) part in these words seems to be a supplementary word attached to the base word in the upper part.

[Number 9] The number nine is ココノツ (kokonotsu) in Japanese, which is often abbreviated to ココ (koko), コ (ko), etc. In Korean, it is 아홉 (ahop). 아홉 has a 'g' or 'k' sound that corresponds to コ (ko) in Japanese, and 홉 (hop) also corresponds to the 'k' sound of コ (ko). Therefore, 아홉 can be equated to ココプ (kokopu) in terms of pronunciation.

[Number 10] The number ten is 열 (yeol) in Korean and トヲ (towo) in Japanese. Ten is recognized as the largest number in the decimal system, leading to the creation of various derived words. 여러 (yeoreo), although not an ordinal numeral, corresponds to ヨロヅ (yorozu - ten thousand) and ヨロ (yoro - a lot, crowd) in Japanese, both signifying 'a large number,' a fact already well known to the world.

In the "Samguk Sagi" (Three Kingdoms History), Goksan County Records, there is a mention of "Ten Valleys Castle," called Deokdonhol (덕돈홀) in one instance. Deok corresponds to ten, and ton corresponds to valley. This shows that the ancient Korean word for ten was 덕 (deok), which corresponds phonetically with トヲ (towo) in Japanese.

The old Japanese word ツヅ (tsuzu - ten) is also a derivative of トヲ (towo), and 덕 (deok) or 다물 (damul - cattle and horses at the age of ten) correspond with each other in terms of the 't' sound. ソ (so) might be a variation of ト (to - ten).

[Other Numbers] The meanings of 스믈 (seumul - twenty), 마흔 (maheun - forty), 쉰 (swin - fifty) are unclear.

One hundred is 온 (on) in Korean, but it is unclear whether it is an ordinal numeral. The corresponding word for 온 in Japanese is 'ホ' (ho), and 'ホ' and 온 align phonetically. モモ (momo - hundred) requires separate study.

즈믄 (jeumeun) is the old word for one thousand, corresponding to 'チ' (chi) in Japanese.

There is no Korean word for ten thousand; the Japanese ヨロヅ (yorozu - ten thousand) corresponds to 여러 (yeoreo - a crowd), as already mentioned.

In the following, the theory proposed by a certain scholar during the Meiji era regarding the doubling of vowels in numerals to indicate an increase in quantity, is rendered obsolete by the presentation of corresponding numerals in both languages.

It is not only that the fundamental concepts of numerals in both languages are almost identical, but also that the words related to numerals correspond to each other in both languages.

The word カタ (kata - piece, part) has traditionally been considered to originate from one side (一方 - hitokata) of 方 (kata - direction, side). However, since 方 signifies one half of an entity, it is clear that the direction, position-related 方 was derived from 片 (kata - piece, part), reversing the primary subject. カタ (kata) corresponds in both sound and meaning to 가닭 (gadak - branch, division) and has its equivalent in Central Asian languages. 片 (kata) means half, implying a division, and signifies 'one side.' For instance, one shoe of a pair of geta illustrates this, where 片々 (katagata) means each half. Numerals become plural and signify 'a large number' due to frequent usage. 가닭가닭 (gadakgadak) means scattered, disorganized, and this usage aligns in both languages.

マタ (mata - also, again) means two and corresponds to 또 (tto - also, again) in Korean. The hard sound is a symbol of omitting one sound, which appears as 'm' in Japanese.

マタ (mata) becomes マタシ (matashi - all). 가닭 (gadak) has derivatives like 갓 (gat - just, exactly) and 한갓 (hangat - single-mindedly), and there are adjectives like 갓라 (gatra), meaning 'both are equal.' コドシ (kodoshi - like) and 갓라 are obviously synonymous. ヨス (yosu - to add) derives from the meaning of gathering and comes to mean to add. This also corresponds to 여러 (yeoreo - crowd), and words like twisting also relate to 'number.'

ヘス (hesu - to reduce) and ヘル (heru - to decrease) are related to numbers, corresponding to 빼다 (ppaeda - to extract) in Korean. If that is not surprising, then what is?

Above is only the essence of the ordinal numerals in both languages. Even from this, it is clear that the fundamental numerals in both languages are completely equivalent. This forms the basis for the verbs and adjectives in both languages to align and correspond with each other, which is why we re-emphasize the common origins of both languages here.

[Transcription]

国語朝鮮語数詞同一論

西村真太郎

両語数詞の対当は従来難渋に逢着し失敗に終り、内外の諸学者は概ね両語数詞同源ならずと悲観説を発表し、従って両語の同源を根柢から否認する人が多いのは、斯道の為に一大痛恨事である。

説を為す学者の多くは、朝鮮語数詞と中央亜細亜地方の諸民族の数詞との接近対当を主張し、以って国語朝鮮語の数詞の同源を無視するのであるが、吾人は乏しきを顧みず凡そ左の通り其の同一を主張する次第である。当れりや否や、之を吾人が断定する前に、先ず否認論者に一応之を提供し、且つ独り毅然として年来両語数詞の根本観念の同源を創説せられたる恩師金澤庄三郎博士に、深甚なる敬意を奉る。

言語対当の根本たる数詞が国語と朝鮮語と符節を合して相等しい場合に、吾人は内鮮一体の万般の事象に対し強烈無比の推進力を獲得し得たりと云うべく、否認者流の説くが如く、対当不能不可であり、延いては両語の同源を根本から覆えし、之を中央亜細亜語族の一方に置き換えんとするが如きことがあっては、其の悪影響は蓋し測り知る能わざるものがあり、自ら戦慄を禁じ得ないものがある。

真理を政治的に解決するのではなく、真理の結果が政治に合致する場合に、吾人は之を天道として尊崇する。両語の根源が天山に発し、東進して数語族を培養したであろうが、国語琉球語朝鮮語の数詞は全く同一なる場合、其を棄てて徒らに天山南路北路を云々するは、本末を正さんとして却って本末を裏返した事となる。

吾人は両語数詞の完全一致を立証し、次にそれを携げて女真、蒙古等の諸語との対比に向うべきであると信ずる。

（壱）国語端（ハナ）、初（ハナ）、端（ハタ）、初（ハツ）、果（ハテ）は尖端の意で、放す（はなす）、離る（はなる）、果つ（はつ）、削る（はつる）、始じむ（はじむ）等と活用する。端（ハタ）、果（ハテ）は朝鮮語귿（端）と対当である。ｎ音とｔ音とｓ音とは夫々相通であるから端（ハナ）、初（ハナ）、㟨（ハシ）、果つ（はつ）、削る（はつる）等、此のブロック内の語は귿と対当となる。

一はヒ、ヒト、ヒトツ等唱える。ヒトはヒタ（純、直、大）と変音する。ヒトシ（等）ヒタスラ（只管）等はヒトの派生語である。

さて、朝鮮語一は하나、한等であるが、古語は하단（河屯）で、別に올と云うのがあるが之は順序数詞ではなく、単に「単独」の意を有つ語で、之も数多の対当語を国語内に有って居る。

하단（河屯）のｔ音はｎ音に変わると하나となる。此の変化は国語端（ハタ）が端（ハナ）と変化したのと、さも似寄って居る。然し之を直ちに対比せしめないでもよい。

金澤文学博士著『吏読雑考』中に二中暦に一を「カタナ」と訓ずとある。高麗語カタナは하단とは音韻の一致を見る。

カタナと하단とが一致するのと同一の理由で、하단と귿とが一致する。

国語ハタ（端）ハナ（端）の母音を少し変更すると「ヒト」となる。ヒト（一）の意とハタ（端）等の一切のブロック内の語との脉絡関係は、今更茲で述べる必要がない。

ヒト（一）は귿（端）を介して하단（河屯）하나（一）と音韻、語義両ら一致する。

（弐）二は朝鮮語두で国語はフ、フタ、フタツ等である。두の派生語に左の諸語がある。

（A)뚜에（蓋）

底がなければフタ（蓋）が出来ない。뚜에は底の上を蓋う。之に두の意が自ら含んで居る。

（B)뒤（後）

前のない後はない。뒤を解剖すると두に還元する。뒤は두の派生語である。

（C）其の他多数にあるが省略する。

さてフタ（蓋）アト（後）の「フ」「ア」を省くと「タ」「ト」となり朝鮮語뚜에、뒤に自然に意義と音声とが合致する。뚜에の硬音は一音省略の符号であり、アト（後）の「ア」は冠語で、其の用例はアツカウ（扱）アコガル（焦）等の「ア」と同じい。

国語二をフタと云い、朝鮮語二を두と云い、国語蓋を二（フタ）の意でフタと云い、朝鮮語蓋を두の意で뚜에と云う。

国語フタ（二）は直接朝鮮語두（二）と声音、語義が全く相等しい。

フタ（二）の上略「タ」下略「フ」等の派生語もあり、두の上略下略の派生語も数多あるが、それが悉く相等しく「アタカモ」は똑（恰も）と声音其の儘相等しい等の立証は実に無数であるが他日に譲る。

（参）三は朝鮮語서で国語はミである。

三国史記地理、四、三峴県、一云密波兮。とあり、朝鮮古語に三を밀と称えた事は明瞭であるが、今日は死語となって居るから挙論しない。

菱は말（字会）で、語義は稜（くり）のある穀粒の意である。

ソバ（蕎麦）は三稜（みくり）の穀粒である。バは말に対当する。それは모밀（蕎麦）밀（小麦）보리（麥）말（菱）等が皆同一ブロック内の語である事から、ソバのバは말としてよい。ソは三の義である事は争う余地もない。其の傍証はソヤ（征矢）でヤ（矢）の三羽なるに限りてソヤ（征矢）と云うから此の「ソ」も三の意である。故に国語三の古訓は「ソ」であると断定しなければならぬ。遂に「ソ」と서は一致し、三の両語数詞も完全に符節を合する。若しそれ之が女真語から端を発して居る等と証明するのは次回に述ぶべき事に属する。

（肆）四は朝鮮語너、너히等で、国語はヨである。

柶は늇で四木が皆仰天すると늇（四向上）と称える。此の늇を六木として占う場合もあり、八木として卜するのを所謂八卦と称する。

片木を仰臥交叉せしめる占法は、亜細亜大陸の何れの民族もが行ったもので、内地に此の法があるかないかも民族学上面白い考証があると思う。

四木の占法늇が너、네等に変化し、之がｎ音を失って「ヨ」となったと想像するが、果してどうか、之には多少の余地が残る。

（伍）五は朝鮮語닷で国語イツである。イツの下略は「イ」であるが、之が五の正音では決してない。イツのイは冠語で普通所謂発語等と称し、ツに冠した語で之を省いた「ツ」は닷に対当する。

（陸）六は엿でムと殆ど関係がない。初め엿と称えて居ったが、後ムベ（宣）ムマ（馬）等の如くｍを挿入したとも思えるが、遺憾ながら説を成さない。

（漆）七は朝鮮語닐곱で、国語はナナである。

三国史記地理四に七重城、一日難隠別、一日重城。とあり又、輿地勝覧京畿篇に積城郡郡名、七重城、重城、乃別とある。

難隠は난은、ナナに対当し、乃も내でナに対当し之等を漢訳して七を重ねる意で七重城と訳したのを見ると、七の朝鮮古語は「나」であった事が判明し、茲にナナと対当となる。

나、내の古語が니と変化し、니롭（牛馬七歳）となり、遂に닐곱と称えるに至った事は、火を見るよりも明らかに認められる處であり、結局ナナは닐곱と対当となる。

（捌）八は国語ヤで、朝鮮語여듧である。ヤと여とは対当であるが、듧が如何なる意味かは今俄かに判断し難い。닐곱、여듧、아홉の「곱」の類は上部の基本語に付随した補足語であろう。

（玖）ココノツ（九）はココ、コ等と下略する。朝鮮語は아홉である。아홉はｇ又はｋ音でコに通じ、홉もｋ音コに通じ、아홉とはココプと訓むに等しい。

（拾）十は朝鮮語열で国語トヲである。

十を十進法中の最大数と認め、여러なる派生語を生じ、此の여러（衆）は順序数詞ではないが、ヨロヅ（万）ヨロ（丁）に対当し、共に「多数」の語義を有って居る事は、已に世人の熟知して居る處である。

さて三国史記谷山郡誌に、十谷城県、一云徳頓忽。とある。徳は十に対し、頓は谷に対する。茲に朝鮮語十の古語が덕であった事が判明し、トヲと덕とは声音学上の一致を見る。

国語古語ツヅ（十）も「トヲ」の派生語であり、덕又は다물（牛馬十歳）と、ｔ音が互に相応じて居る。

ソ（十）はト（十）の変音であろう。

스믈（二十）마흔（四十）쉰（五十）は如何にしても語義が不明である。

百は온であるが、果して順序数詞かどうか不明である。온の対当語は「ホ」で「ホ」と「온」とは声音学上一致する。モモは別に研究せねばならぬ。

즈믄は千の古語で「チ」と対当である。

万の朝鮮語はなく、国語ヨロヅ（万）は여러（衆）と対当である事は已に述べた。

次に明治年代に某学者に依って発表せられた数詞の母音の倍加で、増数するとの説は、両語数詞の対当の発表に依って、反古に帰する。

両語数詞の根本観念が略一致して居るのみならず、数詞に関連する諸語が互に相等しい事も推知し得られる處である。

カタ（片）は従来一方（ひとかた）の方（かた）から生まれた語とされて居るが、方（かた）は個体の半分を意味する語であるから片（かた）から漢字「方」を充当すべき方角、位置に就いての方（かた）が生れたもので明白に主格が顛倒して居る。カタ（片）は가닭（分派）と声音語義両ら相等しく、가닭は中央亜細亜語にも其の対当がある。片（かた）は半分で「分派」の意であり、「一方」を意味する。下駄片足の如きでが之で、片々は半分宛である。数詞は重用に依って「多数」を意味し、複数となる。가닭가닭はバラバラ、チリヂリの意で、其の重用法は互いに一致して居る。

マタ（又）は二を意味し、朝鮮語또（又）と対当である。硬音はX音で国語ｍとなって顕われたものである。

マタ（又）はマタシ（全）となる。가닭（分派）も、갓（丁度）한갓（一途に）等の派生語があり、갓라の形容詞があり、「二者相等し」の意となる。コドシ（如）と갓라とは言う迄もなく相同じい。ヨス（加）も寄る集る意から派生して加える意となって居る。之も여러（衆）と対当であり、撚る等も之と相関連して「数」に関係のある語と言えよう。

ヘス（減）ヘル（減）も数に関係があり、之が朝鮮語では빼다（抜き取る）と対当となって居る。意外と叫ばずして何と呼べばよいのであろうか。

以上両語順序数詞のエッセンス丈を書いたのであるが、之を以ってしても、言語学上両語対照の根本たる数詞が全く相等しい事が判り、それが根本となって続いて両語の動詞、形容詞が符節を合して相等しくなるのであるから、茲に吾人は両語の同一を更めて強調する次第である。

Source: https://archive.org/details/chosen-v36-1938/page/n894/mode/1up

Annie Ellers Bunker, American missionary who went from personal physician to Empress Myeongseong to thriving philanthropist in Colonial Korea, was praised in this 1938 Keijo Nippo obituary for endorsing the Imperial Japanese Army

This obituary from October 1938, published in Keijo Nippo newspaper, an organ of the Imperial Japanese colonial regime which ruled Korea from 1905 to 1945, features Annie Ellers Bunker, an American Methodist missionary and physician who spent around 50 years in Korea. This article sheds light on her remarkable journey, from being Empress Myeongseong's personal physician to her involvement in colonial Korea's society.

Annie Ellers Bunker

Born on August 31, 1860, and passing away on October 8, 1938 (exactly 43 years after the assassination of the Empress), Annie's life spanned significant historical events. Her role as the personal physician to Empress Myeongseong, especially leading up to the Empress's assassination in October 1895, granted her intimate access to the royal court. After the annexation of Korea by Imperial Japan, she seemed to prosper, raising thousands of yen to support various institutions including the Korean Young Women's Christian Association, Gongju Orphanage, Gongju M&A School, and Dongdaemun Women's Hospital. This indicates her significant influence in colonial Korea.

Interestingly, her last words before her death in 1938 were "I wish the Japanese Army will win soon and bring peace to the East", raising questions about her possible pro-Japanese sentiments, even during her time as the Empress's physician. Given her intimate access to the royal court at the time of the Empress's assassination, her documented pro-Japanese sentiments, and her subsequent successful career as a philanthropist in Korea under Imperial Japanese rule, it naturally raises a delicate question: could she have had any involvement or knowledge regarding the Imperial Japanese conspirators who assassinated the Empress? This is a matter left to historians to ponder, and it is not my intention to accuse Annie Ellers of any wrongdoing but to highlight the complexities and controversies surrounding her life.

Annie's closeness with Empress Myeongseong is further highlighted by an incident where, upon her marriage to Dalzell Bunker, the Empress demanded to see her wedding dress, examining it meticulously.

Annie's impact extended to nursing in Korea, being the first female medical missionary in the country. A Boston University Medical College student, she arrived in Korea in 1886, founded the Chungshin Girl’s School, and became a trailblazer in women's healthcare and education.

Annie Ellers Bunker as a young adult. (from Boston University website)

In 1938, the colonial authorities took over the Chungshin Girl's High School, which she founded, and converted it into a state-controlled school promoting State Shintoism and imposing the Japanese language.

Her first encounter with the Empress is vividly documented in her personal essay published in the Korean Repository, a journal for foreign Christian missionaries published between 1892 and 1899. This account provides a fascinating glimpse into her life and the complexities of her role in Korea. For the sake of improving accessibility, I have transcribed and posted the entire essay below, originally found in a PDF from the Korean Repository which is not OCR enabled.

Annie Ellers Bunker is now buried at the Yanghwajin Foreign Missionary Cemetery in Seoul, where her grave marker notes her 40 years of service as a missionary in Korea, until 1926.

This story is not just about the life of a missionary or a physician; it's about a woman whose life intersected crucial historical events, raising questions about her beliefs and the impact she had on Korean society.

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) October 12, 1938

The Grave of the Blue-Eyed Couple Guarding the Red Earth

• Fifty Years of Life on the Korean Peninsula
• Her Last Testament Praises the Imperial Army
• Pro-Japanese American Mrs. Bunker

The deceased Mrs. L. A. Bunker, who dedicated her life to social work on the Korean peninsula for fifty years, will have her funeral at the Chungdong Methodist Church at 10 am on the 12th at 13 Jeongdong-gil. Her last words, spoken to relatives and friends offering solemn prayers at her peaceful deathbed at 9 am on the 8th, were these: “I feel terribly sorry for the wounded Japanese soldiers on the battlefield. Why isn't the war over yet? I wish the Japanese Army will win soon and bring peace to the East.”

With a trembling hand, Mrs. Bunker took out the remaining hundred yen from her entire fortune, which she had dispersed for charitable causes, and requested it be used as a fund for the Japanese Red Cross. Then, she closed her eyes in peace. The words and actions of this foreign lady on her deathbed are being passed from mouth to mouth among friends, stirring deep emotion among the Japanese, Koreans, and foreigners in Seoul.

But who was Mrs. Bunker? Fifty years ago, she bravely came to Korea from her native America alone for missionary work. Fortunately, being a female doctor, she was warmly welcomed by the Korean government. At that time, there were hardly any Western medical facilities in Korea, so Mrs. Bunker, as a pioneer in Western medicine in Korea, dedicated herself and served for many years in the palace as the personal physician to the deceased Empress Myeongseong. After the annexation of Korea by Japan, she focused on missionary and charitable work for thirty years, contributing thousands of yen to various institutions such as the Korean Young Women's Christian Association, Gongju Orphanage, Gongju M&A School, and Dongdaemun Women's Hospital, dedicating her life to social work in Korea for fifty years. Five years ago, her husband Dr. Bunker died while she was on holiday in America. Her husband was so pro-Japanese that he requested in his will to have his remains moved to Korea. Mrs. Bunker, too, will be buried in the beloved Korean soil alongside her husband. [Photo: Mrs. Bunker]

[Transcription]

京城日報 1938年10月12日

赭土を護る碧眼夫婦塚

• 半島生活五十年
• 遺言に讃う皇軍
• 親日の米人バンカー夫人

五十年間半島の社会事業に一生を捧げ、十二日朝十時貞洞町監理教教会で葬式が行われる貞洞町一三故レ・エ・バンカー夫人が去る八日朝九時、静かな臨終の病床で厳粛な祈祷を捧げる親戚友人等に遺して去った最後の言葉はこれだ。

「戦場に傷ついた日本軍人が気の毒でならない。まだ戦争が終らないのか。早く日本軍が勝って東洋に平和が来て欲しい」と夫人は微かに震える手で慈善事業のために全財産をばらまいて残った百円を取り出し日本赤十字事業資金にしてくれと依頼した後、安心したように目を閉じた。死の床に於ける一外人夫人のこの言葉と行為は友人の口から口へ伝わって在城の内鮮外人を問わず感激の話題となっているが、このバンカー夫人はどんな人であったか。

今から五十年前、夫人は故国アメリカから単身宣教のため、勇敢にも朝鮮に飛び込んだ。幸いに夫人は女医でもあったので韓国政府は喜んで厚く迎えた。当時朝鮮はおろか洋医薬の施設は殆どなかった時代なので、夫人は朝鮮に洋医術を済した草分けとして献身的な努力をなし選ばれて故閔妃の侍医として多年宮中に仕えた。日韓併合後は三十年この方布教の外に慈善事業に専念し、朝鮮女子青年会、公州託児所、公州エムエー学校、東大門夫人病院などには何れも数千円の寄付金をおくるなど五十年一生の朝鮮社会事業のために尽くして来た。五年前アメリカへ休暇帰国中図らずも死んだ夫のバンカー博士も遺言によって遺骨を朝鮮に移葬した程の親日家で、夫人も夫君と並んでなつかしい朝鮮の土に葬られることになっている。【写真＝バンカー夫人】

Source: https://archive.org/details/kjnp-1938-10-12/page/n9/mode/1up

[The Korean Repository, October 1895, pp. 373-375.]

My First Visit to Her Majesty, The Queen

During the visit of Mrs. H. G. Underwood and myself to Her Majesty on the 14th of September we saw the Queen Dowager and she gave us each a handsome gold-embroidered chumoncy or purse-Our visit to Her Royal Highness was in the same place where some years ago I went to see the Queen. Many changes have come since then and the Queen now lives in a new building, beautifully lighted with electricity, in another part of the grounds.

It is just nine years ago this fall since I was first, in company with Dr. H. N. Allen the King's physician, called to visit, Her Majesty, the Queen. She had been ill for some time and they had sent to Dr. Allen for medicines. As there was no improvement in her condition the Doctor assured them, that, in order to treat Her Majesty properly, she must be examined, and so the writer was called.

It was a lovely autumn day, when in the early afternoon, we started for the Palace in our sedan chairs, with our keysos (soldiers) running ahead and clearing the way. My heart was thumping vigorously and I wondered how I would be received, half fearing the ordeal.

On our arrival at the outer side-gate of the palace wall, we had to get out of our chairs and walk quite a distance, about a quarter of a mile, I should judge, to the Reception Hall. As we neared the place we were met by Prince Min Young Ik whom I had met, and who, having travelled much, knew something of the customs of foreigners.

He showed us some of the beauties of the palace grounds and after our walk around the artificial lake, he escorted us to the waiting-room and there had us served with foreign food, Korean fruit and nuts.

Soon a messenger dressed in court costume came for me and, Prince Min accompanying me, we started for the Audience Hall. We first crossed a large open court, which I noticed had large potted plants around three sides of it but not a spear of grass growing in it anywhere. Ascending a flight of broad stone steps, crossing the narrow verandah and stepping over a high door sill, I found that we were at one end of a long, wide hall, the floors of which were covered with the soft, beautiful, figured Korean matting which is such a fine article and so hard to obtain. At the farther end of the hall, I saw a large number of Koreans, men, women, and young girls. I made my three bows as I advanced and then found myself in front of the company among whom I soon singled out Her Majesty and for the rest of that visit I had eyes for no one but her. In later visits I learned to distinguish the gentlemen from the eunuchs, and also the ladies-in-waiting by their peculiar head-gear and their fine skirts of silk gauze. The immense chignons worn by these ladies are objects of wonder not only as to size but also as to how the intricate windings and braidings of the glossy strands is accomplished. One evening while witnessing some of the delightful and peculiar posture-dancing done by the dancing girls at the palace, I asked one of them if her chignon was not heavy - "Oh, said she, it is very heavy and makes my head ache." These head dressings vary in shape; sometimes they are long and narrow and then again they have large lateral loops.

The Queen, beautifully dressed in silk gauze skirts, with strings of pearls in her raven locks, a lady, short of stature, with white skin black eyes and black hair, greeted me most pleasantly. She had on no enormous head dress but only her own glistening locks twisted in a most becoming know low down on her neck. She wears on the top of her forehead her Korean insignia of rank. All the ladies of the nobility wear a similar decoration but of inferior quality and workmanship. To me the face of the Queen especially when she smiles, is full of beauty. She is a superior woman and she impressed one as having a strong will and great force of character, with much kindliness of heart. I have always received the kindest words and treatment from her and I have much admiration and great respect for her. After first asking if I were well, how old I was, how my parents were, if I had brothers and sisters and how they were, she proceeded to tell me that they had been told by Dr. Allen of my arrival in Korea, that she was much pleased at my coming and hoped I would like the country. All of this conversation was carried on through an interpreter who stood, with his body bent double, back of a door where he could hear but not see.

Prince Min, who had been standing by, now had a chair brought for me and I noticed that back of Her Majesty there was a foreign couch. The Queen telling me to be seated sat down on this couch and then the medical part of the interview began.

I had noticed that two gentlemen had seated themselves when the Queen sat and when I got up to leave, they with Her Majesty rose and returned my bows.

Prince Min conducted me back to the waiting room and there I waited for Dr. Allen who was having an audience with His Majesty. When he returned I learned from him that both the King and Crown Prince had been present during my interview. I was very glad that I had not known who the two gentlemen were, for I fear my composure would not have been even such at it was. After being served with more food and fruit we were each given a certain number of soldiers to accompany us home and also, as it was dark, lantern bearers. The sight of the Korean lantern with its outer covering of red and green silk gauze is very picturesque and as we passed, many a dusky head peeped out through opened doors and windows to see what it all meant. The empty dark streets with the dark low houses on either side, the lantern bearers of the Doctor's chair and of mine with the attendant soldiers, carrying their rifles made a picture at once interesting and unique. In recent visits we are permitted to go through the large front gate into the grounds and right up to the waiting room door. Upon arriving here tea, coffee, and fruit are served and then we are called in to Her Majesty, who receives us in one of the smaller private appartments. The King and Crown Prince are always present. After the interview we are permitted to proceed home immediately.

Annie Ellers Bunker

Ms. B.F. Starkey, blue-eyed American missionary featured in 1938 Keijo Nippo as a pro-Imperial model foreigner inspired by Japanese-Korean Unification policy to join the Patriotic Women’s Association in Seoul

This 1938 article is a historical account in a colonial propaganda newspaper about Ms. B.F. Starkey, an American missionary in Korea during the Japanese colonial period who devoted decades of her life in Imperial Japan in various charitable activities.

Her decision to cooperate with the colonial regime starkly contrasts with fellow American missionary George McCune's decision in 1935 to refuse to perform State Shinto worship rituals, for which he was forced by the colonial authorities to leave Korea. The fact that Ms. Starkey was able to continue to operate in Korea in 1938 probably means that she decided to go along with performing the State Shinto rituals, including the mandatory 7 am Kyujo Yohai prayers, even though it was against her Christian beliefs. In any case, she probably would not have been able to stay in Korea past 1942, when Americans who still remained in Imperial Japan were detained and deported.

This is the second Keijo Nippo newspaper article that I found featuring a blue-eyed woman. The other one featured a blue-eyed Russian Tatar woman, Shamseinoor Berikova, who was a member of the National Women's Defense Association (NWDA), which was similar but distinct from the Patriotic Women's Association (PWA) to which Ms. Starkey belonged. Historically, the elite wealthy and powerful women tended to join the PWA, while the NWDA had a much closer connection with the Imperial Japanese military and had a broader membership. The two organizations subsequently merged in 1942.

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) July 2, 1938

A blue-eyed woman with a Patriotic Women's Association Sash

Courageous words of Ms. Starkey: "I also want to help out Japan on the home front!"

Moved by the spirited march of Koreans working for the war effort under the policy of Japanese-Korean Unification, a blue-eyed foreign woman was inspired and said, 'Please let me join in these duties on the home front.' Recently, she applied to join the Patriotic Women's Association at its third branch in Takezoe-chō (present-day Chungjeong-no), Seoul, delighting the leaders and members of the group who received her unusual membership application for the first time. The heroine of this story, Ms. B.F. Starkey, an American residing at 3-30 Takezoe-chō, Seoul, has now proudly become a member of the Patriotic Women's Association. At 56 years old, she joins Japanese and Korean members in comforting families of conscripts, collecting national defense funds, and impressing the community with her passionate efforts, dressed in the Association's uniform of a white apron and a purple sash.

Twenty-eight years ago, in 1910, Ms. Starkey landed in Nagasaki as a Methodist missionary in Japan, the land of poetry. Immediately struck by Japan's picturesque landscapes and warm people, she decided to dedicate her life to this country. Ever since then, for twenty-eight years, she has continued to live in this land, true to her initial resolve, dedicating her life to missionary work and cultural pursuits out of her love for Japan. She has nurtured young men and women who gathered around her, drawn to her pure character, as if they were her own children. She has earnestly lead English language clubs and student Bible classes every evening at her home without pay, and opened her garden as a playground for local children to give some relief to their families.

Dedicated to cultural advancement and community service, she also runs a female-only 'private convent,' Shion Dormitory, in the second floor of her house. With open arms, she welcomes young unmarried women who left their families as well as young girls in need of guidance who approach her for answers and salvation, continuing to selflessly devote herself in helping them awaken from misguided dreams through a pure lifestyle at the dormitory. Currently, 13 girls enjoy a pleasant life there, and she has already sent many well-cultured women into society as respectable wives.

Ms. Starkey's high regard as a saintly figure and her membership in the Patriotic Women's Association have sparked usual delight among foreigners living in Seoul, and that is expected to inspire a surge of membership among pro-Japanese foreigners. When visited at her home, she humbly commented, 'I am only doing what is natural,' and made only brief remarks without continuing further. [The photo is of blue-eyed Ms. Starkey]

[Transcription]

京城日報 1938年7月2日

碧い眼に愛婦の襷

”わたしも日本の銃後に”と勇み参じたスターキー女史

内鮮一体で行進する半島銃後の雄々しい姿に感激した碧眼の一外国婦人が「私もこの銃後の勤めに参加させて下さい」とこの程。

☆．．．愛国婦人会

京城竹添町第三分館に入会を求めて来り京城で初めてのこの珍しい入会申込を受けた何団の幹部初め会員一問をいたく喜ばせた。話題のヒロインは府内竹添町三の三〇アメリカ人ビー・エフ・スターキー女子（五六）で晴れて愛婦会員となった。女子は白いエプロンに紫襷の愛婦会服で内鮮人会員と共に応召家族の慰問に、国防金の募集に、健気な奮闘を続け町内を感激させている。

女史は今から二十八年前の一九一〇年メソジスト教会宣教師として長崎に上陸。直ちに詩の国日本の美しい景色と人情に打たれてこの国に骨を埋めようと決心し、以来二十八年間、最初の決心通りこの地で布教のために、文化のために日本を愛する生活を続けて来た。女史の清い人格を慕って集まる若い男女を彼女はわが子のように世話し、また英語クラブ、学生バイブル・クラス等を自宅に設けて毎晩熱心に、しかも無報酬で指導するほか、庭園には子供の遊園地を設けて附近の子供等のために家族を解放するなど。

文化向上と社会奉仕に犠牲的努力を続けているが、更に同家二階に設置経営する男子禁断の「私設修道院」紫苑寮で家庭を離れた若い独身女、或は悩み迷う若い娘で女史に解決や救いを求めて来るものがあれば両手をひろげて迎え入れこの寮における清い生活によって間違った夢から醒めしめることに献身的努力を続けて来ている。現在この寮で楽しい生活を送っている娘は十三名。既に修養を積み立派な人妻として世話に送り出したものが数十名にのぼっている。

この聖女のほまれ高いスターキー嬢の愛婦人会は在城外人間には異様な感激を与え親日外人同志等の入会者続出が予想されている。自宅に女史を訪えば「妾はただ当たり前のことをしているだけです」と続かんで多くを語らなかった（写真は青眼スターキーさん）

Source: https://archive.org/details/kjnp-1938-07-02/page/n10/mode/1up