In 1941, Tokyo officials forcibly settled 1,400 Koreans into an unsanitary slum with no kitchens or bathrooms, and brainwashed them with Imperialist ideology in neighborhood cells enforcing mandatory morning worship of the Emperor

This news article from 1942 highlights the Imperialist ideological indoctrination that was imposed on a small Korean neighborhood in Edagawa, Tokyo, which got its start in 1941 when approximately 1,400 Korean residents of Tokyo were forcibly relocated from areas earmarked for sports venues of the canceled 1940 Olympics. The Tokyo city government constructed 230 basic housing units—effectively barracks—on barren reclaimed land. These units lacked essential facilities such as kitchens, bathrooms, or toilets. The area itself was inhospitable, surrounded by garbage incinerators, disinfection facilities, and poor drainage systems. Frequent flooding and unsanitary conditions compounded the struggles of the residents. However, this propaganda news article from 1942 mentions none of this. Instead, it waxes positively about how the residents are organized into 22 neighborhood cells (tonari-gumi) that enforce ideological indoctrination, such as adherence to mandatory religious rituals such as the 7 am Kyūjō Yōhai ritual (宮城遥拝) which involved deeply bowing several times in the direction of the Imperial Palace in Tokyo while standing, vowing loyalty to the Emperor. The Koreans would have already been familiar with this ritual, because under Imperial Japanese colonial rule, everyone in Korea was required to perform it, with loud sirens reminding everyone to stop what they are doing to perform the prayers. The residents would have also performed the mandatory daily noon prayer, which was a moment of silence in honor of fallen Imperial Japanese soldiers. 

Doctor seeing patients at a clinic in the Edagawa Korean neighborhood.

The settlement house in Edagawa, or 隣保館 (Rinpokan), was established ostensibly to support the forcibly relocated Korean population, providing them with a medical clinic, a cooperative store, childcare facilities, and baths. However, it appears that the house served more as a mechanism for assimilation and control, promoting "imperialization" among Korean residents, pushing them to adopt Japanese language and customs under the guise of welfare and social improvement. This mirrored broader efforts in colonial Korea, where Koreans were integrated into the Aegukban (Patriotic Groups)—neighborhood cells modeled on Japan’s wartime tonari-gumi (neighborhood units). These neighborhood cells, comprising about ten households each, facilitated wartime mobilization, resource control, and ideological indoctrination. The cells also imposed surveillance and compliance, fostering an environment of coercion and control.

The settlement house itself became a physical and symbolic extension of Imperial Japan’s colonial dominance. While framed as a space for welfare, it functioned as a tool for assimilation, control, and the promotion of imperialist ideologies. Forcibly displaced and subjected to poor living conditions, the residents of Edagawa navigated a life shaped by both systemic neglect and the relentless pressures of Japanese imperialization.

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) September 8, 1942

Towards True Imperialization

Young Koreans are growing up

Two Hundred Families Like One Big Household

The Korean Community in the Imperial Capital: The Edagawa Town Settlement House in Fukagawa Ward (2)

About fifty or sixty children with bobbed hair, wearing playful suspenders or simple polka-dotted clothes, stood neatly in ten vertical rows, their cute small hands stretched out inside the newly built wooden-scented auditorium.

"Everyone, we will now bow reverently toward the Imperial Palace where His Majesty the Emperor resides. Show your deepest respect!"

At the command of Director Ikeda, the children solemnly performed a graceful and heartfelt bow in unison.

This is the Edagawa municipal housing complex in the reclaimed land of Fukagawa Ward, stretching out towards the distant sea. It is home to approximately 1,400 Koreans living across 200 households.

Just recently in July, the Tokyo Prefectural Concordia Association established this facility, which is the only settlement house in the Imperial Capital exclusively for Koreans. In just over a month, the residents have embraced it as an extension of their homes, a sanctuary of peace, and a foundation for their lives, making full use of its facilities.

Modern amenities such as a medical clinic, a cooperative store, childcare facilities, and baths have been implemented through the devoted efforts of Director Yakushiji, celebrated as a paternal figure to the Koreans, and a staff of ten. These facilities directly improve the residents' quality of life while also serving as a platform for fostering the Japanese spirit. They play a vital role in promoting the movement for "true imperialization" with relentless vigor.

Director Ikeda shared: "There are twenty-two neighborhood cells here. We emphasize gathering women at regular meetings to teach them the profound spiritual values of the Japanese family. But the most promising are the youth and children."

Centered in Edagawa Town, a youth group exclusively for Koreans has been organized, boasting about 100 members. Their unity is so strong that they even have a brass band. The group actively participates in donation drives, labor service activities, and home-front support movements with commendable zeal.

From somewhere nearby, the chorus of the "Patriotic March" could be heard. The bright red and white Japanese flag atop the vividly painted building began to flutter in the cool sea breeze.

[Photo: The medical clinic within the settlement house building]

Source: https://archive.org/details/kjnp-1942-09-08/page/n2/mode/1up

[Transcription]

京城日報 1942年9月8日

真の皇民化へ

若き半島は育つ

宛ら一家の二百世帯

帝都の半島色：深川枝川町隣保館（２）

おませなズボン吊りや、水玉模様の簡単服をつけたおかっぱさんが五六十人、木の香も新しい講堂に、可愛いお手手をツンと伸ばして十列縦隊…

『皆さん、これから天皇陛下の在します宮城に向かって遥拝をいたしましょう。最敬礼っ！』

池田主任の号令でひそっと心ひきしめ可憐な最敬礼の一ときである。

ここは、はるかに海につづく深川埋立地の市営枝川住宅―約一千四百名の半島同胞が二百の世帯を営んでいる。

半島出身者の生活向上を目ざし東京府協和会がここに帝都唯一の半島者のみの隣保館を開設したのは、ついこのあいだ―七月のことだが、わずか一ヶ月余の日子のあいだに、住民たちは、ここをわが家の延長として馴染み、心の安息所、生活のよりどころとして百パーセントに活用するようになった。診療室、購買部、保育室、入浴室等々の近代的設備は、半島人の父として高名な薬師寺館長はじめ十名の職員の献身的努力により、直接的には住民の生活改善の原動力となり、ひいては日本精神昂揚の運動として展開され、真の皇民化運動にたゆまざる拍車をかけつつあるのだ。

池田主任は語る：『ここには二十二の隣組があり、その常会には、つとめて婦人をあつめ、日本家庭の深淵な精神生活を説くようにしていますが、しかし頼母しいのはやはり、青年と子供ですね』

枝川町を中心に、半島出身者のみの青年団が組織され、約百名の団員の結束は立派なブラスバンドさえ持って、献金運動、勤労奉仕の銃後運動等々に、真先かけての敢闘をつづけているという。

どこからか『愛国行進曲』の合唱…ペンキの色あざやかな建物の上の大日章旗が涼しい海風にはためき出した。【写真＝隣保館内の診療所】

The Edagawa Korean neighborhood evolved further in the postwar era. Following Japan’s defeat in World War II, many Koreans returned to the Korean Peninsula. However, a significant number remained in Edagawa, joined by Japanese residents who moved into the area. Over time, the community faced neglect from municipal authorities, with the Tokyo administration halting essential services such as repairs and waste management. Left with no choice, the residents undertook self-funded efforts to improve their living conditions, building drainage systems and maintaining infrastructure through communal labor.

In 1949, a theft investigation in the Edagawa Korean neighborhood escalated into rioting and clashes between local authorities and Korean residents, resulting in arrests and trials in an event known as the Edagawa incident. 

In preparation for the 1964 Tokyo Olympics, the government took modest steps to integrate Edagawa into the broader urban landscape. Residents, both Korean and Japanese, collaborated to establish shared spaces, including the Chōnichi Children's Park (朝日児童公園). Symbolically named with characters representing both "Korea" and "Japan," the park became a testament to the spirit of coexistence. This period also marked the establishment of institutions such as Tokyo Korean Second Elementary School (東京朝鮮第二初級学校), which provided education rooted in Korean cultural heritage.

By the late 20th century, Edagawa had evolved into a unique neighborhood blending Korean and Japanese cultures. Newcomers from South Korea also contributed to the community's transformation. Institutions like the Edagawa Love Church (枝川愛の教会), established 26 years ago, became centers of cultural exchange. However, as the demographics shifted and historical memory faded, fewer people remained aware of the origins of Edagawa as a community forged through resilience.

Today, Edagawa retains remnants of its storied past, with dilapidated two-story buildings and barracks serving as silent witnesses to the struggles and achievements of its residents. However, gentrification and urban redevelopment have brought change. Proximity to bustling areas like Toyosu underscores the contrast between modern high-rises and the historical core of Edagawa. Efforts continue to preserve the history of Edagawa. Educators, community leaders, and historians are working to document the neighborhood’s heritage, ensuring that future generations remember the sacrifices and resilience of those who built it. 

Link: Edagawa's history as recorded by the Edagawa Korean language classroom

Imperial Japan’s railway system in Korea was falling apart by early August 1945 with severe overcrowding, parts and labor shortages, exhausted staff causing more accidents, train conductors gone rogue …

This article offers a fascinating glimpse into the decrepit state of the streetcar system in Seoul at the beginning of August 1945, a mere two weeks or so before the end of World War II and the liberation of Korea from Imperial Japanese colonial rule.

Original caption: Executive Maehara guiding workers on-site

Three years of war apparently took a terrible toll on the city's streetcar infrastructure, with shortages of everything from labor to materials, and repair backlogs increasing. Even in the best of times, the streetcar system was already struggling with crowding, as shown in these newspaper photos from November 28, 1939:

Fewer operational streetcars meant even more overcrowding, which was exacerbated by passengers who brought oversized luggage on board, often stuffed with scarce food supplies brought in from the countryside. Fewer staff also meant overworked staff who were exhausted and more prone to mistakes, which led to more accidents. Similar scenes were likely playing out elsewhere in Imperial Japan in both the wartime and immediate postwar periods.

The colonial reporter interviewed two people for this piece: one was President Hozumi of Seoul Electric Railway, and the other was Chief Conductor Maehara whom the reporter accompanied on a field trip to at least three of the train stations along a short stretch of what is now Line 2 of Seoul Metro: Kōgane Station (present-day Euljiro-1-ga), Eiraku Station (present-day Euljiro-3-ga), and Kōgane 4-Chōme Station (present-day Euljiro-4-ga). Maehara and the reporter witnessed the serious overcrowding and dysfunctional train operations first hand, such as train clumping and 'tandem trains' (a larger car pulling a smaller one). The interviewees were surprisingly frank and open about the ongoing problems, acknowledging room for improvement. As a propaganda news feature, colonial authorities may have published these interviews to address mounting public anger over worsening train services.

Maehara directed special criticism at rogue train conductors who were responsible for the phenomenon of trains pretending to be broken ('moving broken cars'), trains speeding away even though there is still space for more passengers ('jump trains'), trains that ignore waiting passengers at stops ('slipping trains'), and trains running without clear destinations ('black trains'), which he attributed to lack of adequate crew education. Perhaps some of these 'black trains' were commandeered by anti-regime elements, like Korean nationalists and revolutionaries.

This article uses one Korean word, "回車 (회차)", which means "a train reversing direction at the end of its route and heading back in the opposite direction". The corresponding Japanese word would be 折り返し列車. In fact, the word 回車 does not appear in any online Japanese dictionary, not even in the Weblio dictionary which usually includes words used during this period. Did the variety of Japanese spoken in Korea at the time include this word as a special loanword, or did a Korean writer accidentally or intentionally slip it into this article? In the two years of reading Keijo Nippo, this is arguably the first word I have ever encountered in the pages of the newspaper where I had to consult a Korean dictionary to confirm its definition.

I marked and labeled the train stations mentioned in this article along with some additional landmarks in the following illustrated 1929 map, which can be found at this history website. This map is a panoramic view of Seoul (then called Keijō in Japanese) as viewed in the northeast direction.

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) August 3, 1945

Trains, Run Smoothly! 

President Hozumi Discusses Alleviating Congestion 

Struggling with Repairs

Just when you think a train has finally arrived, you are caught in a crush of people, a scene of chaos and agony—it is truly a transportation hell. The issue of transportation is a source of distress for the people of Seoul. Is there any measure that can alleviate the congestion? This question, along with another concern, was brought to the headquarters of the Seoul Electric Railway Company, leading to a conversation with President Hozumi about running the trains.

The Wish to Eliminate Faulty Cars

Q: What is the fundamental cause of the transportation congestion?
A: In the past, we prided ourselves on operating 95% of all vehicles. Now, however, we cannot keep up with repairs. We lack enough cars, and we cannot procure motors. We are forcing trains to run in tandem (a larger car pulling a smaller one), but this strain is causing even more breakdowns. The rate of absenteeism among crew members is also increasing.

Q: While the material shortages are understandable, could not congestion be alleviated somewhat by having technical school students help out with repairs and by reinforcing labor management?
A: Well, is that something only the electric company can do? Recently, due to the rain, the number of faulty cars has increased. Of course, repairs are essential, and we must also consider the job security of the crew members. Support from relevant government agencies for food supplies and materials is necessary, and raising public awareness of transportation etiquette is also part of the solution.

Q: What about reducing unnecessary passengers?
A: Recently, there has been a noticeable increase in people going out to buy food. They bring large loads, which contributes to the congestion. But then, what qualifies as a truly necessary passenger? People going out to buy food are doing so to survive, so you cannot exactly say their trips are unnecessary. We need to be more thoughtful about car assignments.

Q: It seems accidents have been on the rise as well.
A: In general, people are paying less attention. This applies to the crew as well. I am deeply concerned about this. But when I look at the current situation, it seems like a competition between inconsiderate people. Seoul Electric runs the trains, but there are other institutions responsible for public transportation training and etiquette. I think it is necessary to retrain the drivers.

Q: Does Seoul Electric have any decisive measures to alleviate congestion?
A: Listen, when there is little food, people fight. The same applies to transportation—if we had enough cars, there would be no problem. For that, we need to gather more hands for repairs. If we can do that, restoring the system to its former state is not impossible.

Dull Train Operations

Chief Conductor Maehara brainstorms solutions

In terms of life in the city center, both moral integrity and clarity are swayed when the charm of smooth train operations is significantly disturbed. We accompanied a senior official from the Seoul Electric Railway Company as he took command on the front lines, observing the real situation on the ground.

"Don't push, you will get crushed! What are you saying? Don't dawdle!"

At the peak of rush hour, around 5 PM, near the entrance of Kōgane Station (present-day Euljiro-1-ga), a middle-aged, distinguished conductor was hard at work directing passengers, urging, "Please move in an orderly manner, there is still room, so please move inside." This dedicated conductor is none other than Mr. Maehara, a senior executive of Seoul Electric. At the request of the reporter, he kindly agreed to discuss the congestion issue on the spot.

"How can we squeeze in like this? People are not cargo!" a loud voice of anger came from the crowd, and Maehara, with a wry smile, slightly lowered his head.

Reporter: "Do you often ride the trains yourself?"
Maehara: "Of course, I am on the trains practically every third day."

After some light banter, the reporter and Maehara continued their conversation on the crowded train.

Reporter: "Is there no way to alleviate this congestion? Recently, I heard about a passenger who broke two ribs and had to be hospitalized."
Maehara: "It is embarrassing for the company that we are unable to adequately serve the needs of wartime transportation. Above all, we simply do not have enough trains. Compared to the end of last year, we have reduced the number of cars by an additional 30%. On top of that, 25% of the cars that leave the depot each day return due to breakdowns."

Reporter: "Is there no way to strengthen your repair capabilities?"
Maehara: "We lack enough workers."

Reporter: "You cannot just leave it at that, can you?"
Maehara: "Of course, the trains are just as important as weapons, and we are striving to train and recruit workers. We are waiting for the implementation of new regulations that will stabilize the conditions for our employees, but I regret that the authorities are slow in taking action."

Reporter: "Given the extreme reduction in the number of trains, isn't it vital for the company to implement bold new ideas for introducing new train management technologies?"
Maehara: "We are considering it, but it is difficult."

At Eiraku Station (present-day Euljiro-3-ga), many passengers got off, and a good number of waiting passengers were able to board. Maehara was closely examining intersection technologies.

Reporter: "For example, cars converge on this line from both the Namdaemun and Seodaemun platforms, so if people walk to this point, it should be easier to board. If the two platforms at the Kōgane Station entrance were consolidated on the Kōgane line side, the train utilization rate would increase significantly, don’t you think?"
Maehara: "We would not know for sure without precise calculations. It is a complex problem involving advanced mathematical 'combinations.' Moreover, the stop-and-go signals are controlled by entirely separate entities, which complicates matters."

Reporter: "Have you tried calculating it precisely?"
Maehara: "We have not. But breaking the usual norms of train operations may indeed be essential."

We disembarked at Kōgane 4-Chōme Station (present-day Euljiro-4-ga). There we saw a line of ten "tandem trains" (a larger car pulling a smaller one). Maehara, embarrassed, remarked, "Well, here comes another tandem." When we asked the cause at the front of the line, we learned it was a motor failure.

Maehara: "It is generally the same things: motor failures, brake issues, ball bearings, or circuit breakers causing what we call 'clumped operations'—and this greatly inconveniences passengers. Many of the faults cannot be repaired on-site."

Reporter: "How many 'clumps' occur each day?"
Maehara: "I do not know. We do not receive reports on each one."

Reporter: "Is there no enthusiasm for gathering data on such issues?"
Maehara: "Handling clumps while trains are in operation is a longstanding problem that the railway society has been studying, but with breakdowns happening so frequently, we must indeed put more effort into it. We would like to draw on the wisdom of scientists in the city. Seoul Electric is also studying this issue, but there are already more than ten different causes of clumping alone."

As an experiment, we tried recording the [westbound] passing trains headed for Kōgane Station and the [eastbound] passing trains bound for 6-chōme (present-day Dongdaemun History and Culture Park Station). From 6:51 PM, we observed the following departures:

• 6:51 PM, train headed for Kōgane Station
• 7:00 PM, train headed for Kōgane Station
• 7:16 PM, train headed for Kōgane Station
• 7:17 PM, train headed for Kōgane Station
• 7:20 PM, train headed for Kōgane Station
• 7:25 PM, train headed for Kōgane Station

It was not until 30 minutes later that a Wangsimni-bound train finally arrived. It was a small train, with passengers spilling out from both entrances. The train slowly came to a stop, packed so dangerously that it was unbearable to watch. Following that, two Wangsimni-bound trains arrived, and ironically, the third one was nearly empty. For a line that transports 90,000 commuters a day, the operation of the Wangsimni line was nothing short of terribly inefficient, a 'skewer dumpling' style of operation.

Reporter: "What about adjusting train destinations at key points to better manage flow?"
Maehara: "Passengers are uncooperative, and changing the destination in the middle of a route only causes more confusion."

Reporter: "If leaving the task of managing the confusion to lower-level employees results in further disorder, then it would be better to assign staff at key points. The real issue is breaking away from outdated concepts of train operation. It seems we are too bound by conventional practices."

At the train station in Donam-dong there was still a massive crowd of about 400 people waiting. At its peak, the crowd can reach 600. At Jongno 4-Chōme (present-day Jongno 4-ga), another large crowd was waiting. The route, which carries 80,000 daily commuters with only eight cars, was managed relatively smoothly, but the Kōgane Line saw passenger surges that drastically reduced operational efficiency. While passenger management in 'skewer dumpling trains' is going relatively well, there are still issues such as trains pretending to be broken ('moving broken cars'), trains speeding away even though there is still space for more passengers ('jump trains'), trains that ignore waiting passengers at stops ('slipping trains'), and trains running without clear destinations ('black trains'). Clearly, there are still significant gaps in the education of the train operators.

Maehara: "There is clearly a lack of adequate training for the crew, but it seems we are still feeling the aftereffects of having overemphasized the improvement of train turnaround rates for a period. We are determined to make every effort to address this."

While there are certainly ongoing challenges and 'impossible' situations, Maehara’s dedication to his work is evident. He is known for late-night sessions with experts, formulating plans to improve operations. The people of Seoul have great expectations for him as the new senior executive at Seoul Electric.
[Photo: Executive Maehara guiding workers on-site]

[Transcription]

京城日報 1945年8月3日
上手に電車よ走れ
穂積社長と混雑緩和問答
修理困難に閉口

やっと電車が来たかと思うと押し合いへし合い阿鼻叫喚、正しく交通地獄だ。戦う京城府民の『足』の問題は悩みの種である。輸送緩和へなんとか施策はないものか。府民の此の苦情を京電本社へ持ち込み打開究明の二題＝先ず穂積社長の肚を叩いて電車を走らそうとする問答

一掃したい故障車
問：輸送が混雑する根本原因は何か？
答：もとは全車輌の九十五パーセントを動かしていたのが京電の自慢だったが、今は修繕が行き届かない。車輌も足らないモーターも手に入らない、そこで無理に親子電車を引張るのだが無理をするから更に故障が増えるという始末だ。乗務員の欠勤率も揚っている。
問：資材難は仕方ないとしても技術者現役生徒の勤労奉仕も車輌修繕を手伝わしたり労務管理を徹底すれば或る程度混雑は緩和されないか？
答：夫は君、電気会社だけすることかね。最近雨の為に故障車は増えているし修理の手は勿論緊要だし乗務員の身分的安定も考慮せねばならぬ。従業員の食糧、資材斡旋等関係官庁の助力が必要で府民の交通道徳の昂揚も緩和策だ。
問：無駄な人を運ばないようにすればどうか？
答：最近買出し部隊がめっきり増えてきて大きな荷物を持ち込み混雑の一因となっているが、然らばほんとうに用がある人とは何か。買出しも食う為にはどうしてもやらなければならぬ状態だから其の人にとっては無用だとは言えぬではないか。配車ももっと考慮すべきだと思う。
問：事故が増えてきた様だが？
答：一般に注意力が減ってきている。乗務員もそうだ。此の点恐縮している。然し近頃の状態を見ているとまるで野暮人と野暮人の競合だよ。京電は電車を動かすが乗客の交通道徳とか訓練は他にやるべき機関があるではないか。運転手の再教育は必要だと思う。
問：何とか輸送緩和へ京電の決戦施策はないか？
答：いいかね君、食物も少ないと喧嘩をする。輸送も車輌さえあれば問題ない。其の為には修繕の『手』を搔き集めたい。そうすれば元通り復活することは不可能ではない。

芸の無い配車ぶり
紳士車掌前原さん思案投げ首
都心生活に道徳心も明朗性も先ず電車運営の妙味が大きく揺らぐ。京城電車幹部の陣頭指揮に同行。現場の実体を衝く。
『押すな潰れるぞ何言うか、ぼやぼやするな！』
午後五時頃混雑絶頂の黄金町入口で客をさばき乍ら『御順に中へ願います、まだ乗れますから中へ詰めて下さい』懸命に名車掌ぶりを発揮しているのが中年の紳士車掌。これが京電前原常務だ。記者が乞うて混雑電車打開の現場問答に出て貰った姿だ。
『そんなに詰められるかい、人間は荷物じゃないぞ』と怒声が飛んで来て常務の縮んだ首が苦笑する。
『常務も電車てうものに乗りますか』
『冗談ではない。三日にあげず乗っている』
以下馬鹿囃子で締め上げる様にして乗った記者との車中問答。
『この混雑は何とかならんか。此の前も肋骨二本を折って入院した客もある』
『会社の不勉強で決戦輸送に充分の奉仕が出来ず申し訳ない。何と言っても電車が足らない。昨年末の混雑時に較べて現在は更に三割減車している。それに加えて毎日一日出庫した車が故障で入庫するが其の数は二割五分に達している』
『修理能力の強化は出来ぬか』
『工員不足だ』
『工員不足だ、と放っては擱けまい』
『勿論電車も兵器だの信念で工員教育と、工員募集に努力している。近く充足会社としての工員待遇の規定が適用されれば工員も落ちつくと思うが当局の措置も遅い憾みがある』
『それにしても極端に減車した今日、電車の操車技術にも思い切った新構想を行うのは会社として第一の要点ではないか』
『考えてはいるが困難だ』
永楽町では乗客が大分下車して、待っていた客のかなりが乗車出来た。交叉点技術を突っ込んでいる。
『例えば此の線には南大門方面からと西大門方面からの車が二重に集まるので此処迄歩けば幾何か楽に乗れる。もし黄金町入口の二つの乗場を黄金町線側に統合したら車の利用率はぐっと上がると思うが』
『夫は精密に計算してみないと優劣は解らない。高等数学の『組合』の問題だ。それにゴーストップの信号が全然別個の管轄だから厄介だ』
『精密に計算してみたことがあるか』
『それはない。然し電車は交叉点前で止まるのが定石だ。定石を打破してみるのが肝要ではないか』
黄金町四丁目で降りてみる。丁度来合わせた十輌も重なった「親子電車」に『いや端へ向の親子が来ましたね』と常務卿が照れた形だ。先頭の車に原因を訊くとモーターの故障だ。
『大体時々廻ってみて解るのはモーターの故障、制動器、ボール、遮断器と色々の故障の為に大小の団子運転を作っているが之が乗客に大変な迷惑をお掛けしている。現場で修理出来ぬものも多い』
『一日にどれ程団子を作っているか』
『それは解らない。一々報告がない』
『それ位の統計を作るだけの研究熱意はないのか』
『．．．団子の「運行中処理は」電車学会の宿題になっているが、こう故障が頻発しては大いに研究せねばならない。街の科学者の知恵も借りたい所だ。京電でも研究中だが、団子の原因と種類だけでも十数程ある』
試みに二人で黄金町から六丁目方面行きの通過車輌を記録してみる。六時五十一分黄金町行、七時黄金町行、七時十六分続いて黄金町行、七時十七分同、七時二十分同、七時二十五分同、始めてから三十分後にやっと往十里行が来る。しかも小型の両入口にはみ出した客が鈴成りのまま徐行して止まる。危なくてみておれない。続いて往十里行が二台、三台目は皮肉にも空いている。日に九万人の通勤者を運ぶ往十里線の操車はこれでは拙劣此上もない『串団子』運転だ。
『時々要地点で行先変更をやり調節してはどうか』
『乗客が無理解で出来ないものもかえって混乱して収拾がつかぬ』
『混乱を整理するための処置を下級従業員に委せて、混乱するのなら要所に係を配置してやればよいだろう。問題は古い操車通念を打破することだ。どうも操車上の「定石」に囚れているように思う』
敦岩町の停留所は相変わらず長蛇の列でざっと四百名が押しかけている。多い時は六百を超えている。鐘路四丁目でもまた大物長蛇が待っているが、一日八万の通勤者を僅か八輌の車が運んでいる。それでも比較的順調な一本運転に対して黄金町線の客が波状的に殺到するから運用率は全然低下している。ここの乗客整理はうまく行っていた『串団子電車』もさることながら故障を偽った「動く故障車」まだ空いているのに客を振り切って走る「跳び出し電車」停車点の客を無視して行き過ぎる「滑り込み電車」行き先も前後も解らず走る「闇電車」等々まだまだ運転手教育に不充分の處がある。
『全く乗務員教育の足らん處だが一時回車率向上を強調した余波がまだあるようだ。極力努力したいと思っている』
問題は勿論困難と『不可能』の続出かも知らぬが、技術畑に鍛えたという仕事への熱と追及力が充分みられ、陣頭指揮の一方、夜おそく迄専門家と首引で構想を錬ると言う新常務前原鷹氏の仕事ぶりは府民が大いに期待する處だ。

【写真＝現場で整理員指導中の前原京電常務】

The original source can be checked out at the National Library of Korea, which I visited in September 2023 to take the following photos of the newspaper copies:

Colonial regime called for intensified Imperialist training to make Koreans more ‘Japanese’ to address low morale, high turnover rates, and black market activities among Korean forced laborers in 1944 Japan

This 1944 wartime editorial, written by the staff of the Keijo Nippo newspaper, calls for Japanese-Korean unity as it addresses the discriminatory attitudes that Japanese people held against Korean forced laborers in mainland Japan. The article attempts to present a balanced critique, admonishing both Koreans and Japanese for their inability to get along. It scolds Koreans for seeking equality while also chastising Japanese for harboring a superiority complex. However, the overall tone of the article is far from balanced, as it is much more critical of Koreans than of Japanese. That is understandable, given that Keijo Nippo was the propaganda organ of the Imperial Japanese colonial regime which ruled Korea from 1905 to 1945.

As mentioned in this editorial article, Korean forced laborers in Japan apparently had gained a reputation for their involvement in black market activities and high turnover rates in mining camps. The historic Sado gold mine was one of many such mining camps that were notorious for the abusive treatment of forced laborers. These laborers likely resorted to the black market to secure basic necessities such as food, clothing, and shelter—needs that, by the editorial writers' own admission, were not adequately met.

To modern readers, the obvious solution to these issues would be to improve working conditions and treat the laborers more humanely. However, the editorial staff instead callously called for intensified "Imperial education" as the primary solution. This approach aimed to force Japanese culture and State Shinto religion upon the Koreans, with the belief that making them more "Japanese" would lead to greater morality, harder work, and less involvement in illegal activities. Improvements in dining facilities, housing, and clothing were only mentioned in passing as secondary considerations. In fact, 1944 was the year when the colonial regime intensified its religiosity, forcing Koreans to build thousands of Shinto shrines in the midst of a desperate war, despite severe labor and material shortages.

This editorial is noteworthy because, for an article from 1944 discussing Japanese-Korean relations, it is surprisingly frank about the deep-seated prejudices many Japanese held (and still hold) against Zainichi Koreans, including beliefs that they are prone to criminality and laziness. It highlights the long-standing roots of anti-Korean prejudice among the Japanese, which trace back to the colonial period of Korean history.

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) April 7, 1944

Editorial

**Strive for Total Harmony Between Japanese and Koreans**

Recently, there have been numerous criticisms concerning the thoughts and actions of Koreans residing in mainland Japan. Director-General Tanaka, who recently returned from attending the assembly, has pointed this out as well. The issue appears to revolve around the frequent engagement of Koreans in black-market dealings and the high mobility rate of workers in industries such as mining, which has drawn criticism by mainland Japanese people. Unfortunately, to a certain extent, these claims are based on facts that cannot be entirely denied. Of course, it is not only Koreans who commit such black-market activities; there are still some mainland Japanese who lack a sense of discipline and engage in these practices as well. However, the problem lies in the disproportionately high number of Koreans involved in these criminal activities.

The fact that many Koreans engage in black-market activities is, in the end, evidence that they generally have a lower level of education compared to mainland Japanese, lack war awareness, and have not fully embraced the concept of the National Body. Therefore, the only solution is the thorough implementation of Imperial education. However, recent circumstances show that the negative feelings and discriminatory attitudes of the mainland Japanese towards Koreans stem from these issues and have led to a tendency where Koreans are viewed with a biased perspective in all matters. It is evident that the Japanese, too, have their share of misunderstandings, and there is a sense of emotional stubbornness that cannot be ignored. In other words, there seems to be a tendency to make hasty judgments based on preconceived notions, leading to a form of prejudice.

The less educated and less understanding the Koreans are, the more the Japanese, who play the role of the elder brother, must approach them with warmth, kindness, and generosity. The Japanese must embrace and guide them with a broader, more tolerant mindset. In short, there is a lack of mutual affection and harmony. This is not only true for the Japanese, but Koreans also need to engage in self-reflection.

The high mobility rate of workers in industries such as mining ultimately boils down to a mental issue within Koreans themselves. At the same time, a significant part of the problem stems from the lack of affection and harmony in the attitudes of the Japanese towards Koreans, which should have been the foundation of their relationship.

However, it should be noted that there is still much room for research and improvement regarding the guidance and management of the Korean population residing in mainland Japan, both at the Government-General of Korea and the relevant institutions in Japan. First and foremost is the training of Koreans. It goes without saying that Imperial training must be carried out at every opportunity in all regions moving forward, and for this purpose, it is essential to enhance the training institutions. Secondly, the improvement of welfare and other management facilities is critical. It is necessary to allow workers who have come without their families to bring them along, and special consideration should be given to improving the dining facilities at workplaces, as well as providing housing, clothing, and other essentials. The relevant authorities should take comprehensive measures in this regard.

Koreans tend to call for equality, while the Japanese tend to harbor feelings of superiority. Both are equally significant shortcomings that require reflection. The Imperial Rule Assistance Association is currently preparing to address this Korean issue and is ready to launch a national movement under the banner of "Total Japanese-Korean Harmony". Some may feel that it is too late to discuss Japanese-Korean harmony now, but total harmony is not only a demand between Japanese and Koreans; it is also a war imperative that must be called for even among the Japanese themselves. In other words, there is no limit to how much we can demand total harmony from the public. We place great expectations on this national movement.

[Transcription]

京城日報 1944年4月7日

社説

内鮮総親和に努めよ

最近内地に在住する半島人の思想や行動についてとかくの批評を聴くようである。議会出席から帰任した田中政務総監もこれを指摘している。問題は半島人側に闇取引きをなすものが多いということと鉱山労働者などの移動率が頗る高いというところに対する内地人側の避難にあるようである。之は或る程度事実であることを遺憾ながら認めないわけにはいかない。勿論闇行為を犯すものは半島人に限られているわけでななく、一部内地人の不心得者もなお依然としてその後を絶たないのであるが、その犯罪数の割合が特に半島人側において多いというところに問題があるのである。

半島人に闇行為者が多いということは結局それだけ内地人に比して一般に教養の度が低く、戦争意識に欠け、国体観念に徹していないという証拠にほかならぬ。従ってその対策は皇民教育の徹底に俟つほかはないのであるが、内地人の半島人に対する悪感情や差別態度がこの辺から出発して、一般に何事に対しても常に色眼鏡を以って半島人を見るという傾向に飛躍している昨今の事態については、内地人側にもまた見逃すことの出来ぬ誤解もあり、捉われた感情の固執があるのではないかと思われる。すなわちそこに一を以って十を律しようという速断的な考え方が殆ど先入主となっている嫌いがあるのではないか。

半島人が教養が低く、理解力の乏しいものであればあるほど兄貴分に当たる内地人はもう一つ温き親切を以ってこれに当たり、もう一つ大きい襟度を以ってこれを抱擁し、指導するていの度量がなくてはならない。要するに相親相和の気持ちが足りないのである。それは内地人に対しても言えることであり、半島人に対しても反省を需めねばならぬことである。

鉱山労務者の移動率が高いということも結局は半島人自体の精神の問題に帰着するが、また相親相和に出発すべき内地人の半島人に対する態度に、いろいろの意味において欠けるところのものがあることも大きな原因をなしている。

しかしながら内地在住の半島人問題は総督府においてもまた内地における関係機関においても指導と管理の徹底を示すところにまた大きな研究の余地が残っていることを知るべきである。まず第一に半島人の錬成である。この皇民錬成は今後機会ある毎に各所においてなすべきは勿論であって、そのためには錬成機関の充実を行う必要を痛感する。第二には厚生その他の管理施設の充実である。家族を伴わぬ労務者に家族を伴わせることも必要であり、職場における板場の改善、住宅、衣料などの特別配慮もいうまでもなく肝要である。関係当局はこの意味において万全の対策を講ずべきであろう。

半島人はとかく、平等ということを叫びたがる。内地人はとかく優越感を抱きたがる。何れも同じく反省するに足る欠点である。大政翼賛会では近く、この半島人問題をとりあげ、内鮮総親和というべき国民運動を展開すべく準備中であるという。今ごろ内鮮融和でもあるまいといった印象を受けるものもあるかもしれぬが、総親和ということはひとり内鮮人間に要求されるものでなく、内地人同志間にも求めらるべき戦争の要請である。すなわち総親和ということはいかに声を大にし、幾度回を重ねて国民に求めても、これに過ぎるという問題ではない。われらはこの国民運動に多大の期待をかけたい。

Source: https://archive.org/details/kjnp-1944-04-07/mode/1up

Korean forced laborers worked the Gyeongsan cobalt mine under Japanese control from 1940 to 1945, which later became the site of a massacre of political prisoners in 1950 at the onset of the Korean War

This article from 1943 highlights Korean forced laborers in a Japanese-owned cobalt mine located in what is now Gyeongsan City. While recent news coverage has covered the controversy over the Korean forced laborers in the Sado Gold Mine, this article reminds us that, for every prominent mine like Sado Gold Mine, there were probably many other Imperial Japanese mines like it that receive much less public attention, but were also egregious in their use of Korean forced labor.

Female Korean workers descending the mountain of the cobalt mine.

According to the article, the laborers' work environment was heavily militarized like a prison camp. Like in the rest of colonial Korea, everyone was required to perform the mandatory daily 7 am and 12 noon prayers. There were usually loud sirens marking those two times of the day, and you had to immediately stop what you were doing and perform the prayers. The 7 am Kyūjō Yōhai ritual (宮城遥拝) involved deeply bowing several times in the direction of the Imperial Palace in Tokyo while standing, vowing loyalty to the Emperor. The noon prayer was a moment of silence in honor of the Imperial Japanese soldiers.

The laborers had only three rest days each month. These 'weekends' were filled with mandatory indoctrination sessions to enforce State Shinto religious practices and Japanese language classes. In a typical colonial tactic of pitting colonized people against each other, the laborers were divided into 'workplace patriotic groups'. Collaborators were recruited and appointed to control each group on behalf of the colonizers.

These patriotic groups were pitted against each other in competitions to curry favor with their bosses. They competed to be the most productive, efficient, and punctual in the mine. Fierce competition led one group to propose working for free on public holidays and donating their entire day's pay toward the war effort. This obsequious proposal was implemented and enforced across the entire labor force.

Patriotic groups (JP: aikoku-han, KR: aeguk-ban, 愛國班) were established not only in this mine, but also in neighborhoods and companies all over Korea to enforce colonial rule. All patriotic groups belonged to the Korean Federation of National Power (国民総力朝鮮連盟, 국민총력조선연맹), which functioned as the one and only political party of Korea.

After the Korean War, the mine became the site of the Gyeongsan Cobalt Mine Massacre (Namu Wiki article link) of July to September 1950, when the South Korean government brought political prisoners to the mine, beat, shot, and burned them with flame-throwers, and threw down the mine shaft, which was then dynamited to obscure evidence. During the military dictatorships and repressive regimes of President Rhee Syngman, General Chun Doo-hwan, and President Park Chung-hee, these atrocities were kept secret and surviving family members silenced. It was only in the year 2000 under the presidency of Kim Dae-jung that a special law related to the Jeju Uprising, another Korean War massacre site, was passed and all bereaved families members were finally encouraged and invited to register as such.

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) August 28, 1943

**Visiting the facilities to witness the increased production of special minerals (2)**

*The Noble Drug of the Ore World*

*Increased Production of Cobalt Ore*

**The Story of the Patriotic Mine**

It was January 1940 on a snowy day. A person from mainland Japan, accompanied by a hunting dog setter, was seen near the site of an abandoned gold mine in Amnyang-myeon (압량면, 押梁面) of Gyeongsan County, North Gyeongsang Province, which had long been idle. While casually approaching the abandoned mine with a hunting rifle on his shoulder, the dog, which had been walking ahead, suddenly fell into the shaft of the former mine, which had filled with groundwater to a depth of more than forty feet, turning it into a well. The man hurriedly ran to a nearby village for help and eventually managed to rescue his dog. During this process, he noticed a strange ore among the high piles of waste rock by the roadside. This ore turned out to be cobalt ore, which has since come into the spotlight as a prominent mineral, and the hunter from mainland Japan was none other than Mr. Shūzō Ninomiya, the owner of the current Patriotic Cobalt Mine.

◇

Initially, world production of cobalt was thought to be limited to certain regions: Canada 29%, France 26%, India 12%, and British Rhodesia (in Southern Africa) 33%. Although there were minor yields in Yamaguchi, Hyōgo, and Ehime Prefectures in Japan, and small quantities associated with gold and silver in arsenopyrite in Korea, these were so minimal that they were not economically viable to exploit.

However, cobalt, a precious resource often compared to a noble drug, is crucial for manufacturing scientific weapons under wartime conditions, serving as a special steel raw material with low wear for pistons, shafts, and cylinders. It is also an essential resource as a catalyst for synthetic oil and rubber. Therefore, the discovery of a vein with an estimated grade of [censored]% and an extension of [censored] kilometers was a significant stimulus to the concerned parties.

Thus, in January 1941, the "Patriotic Cobalt Mine" was formally registered. Coincidentally, the beloved dog that had led to the discovery of the mine died suddenly, adding a potential future legendary element to the mine's story.

Regardless, the military took a keen interest in the mine due to the ongoing war situation, and rapid production expansion began in January 1942 with their support.

◇

The journalist was granted special permission to tour the site with Mr. Ninomiya. While the exact production volume, facilities, plans, and labor details cannot be disclosed, it was astonishing to see the development progress achieved in just two years since securing a loan of [censored] million yen.

Out of the current labor force of [censored] people, [censored] are women and girls from the workers' families, and their good attendance record and operating rate of [censored]% reflect their deep commitment as wartime mine workers. This achievement is undoubtedly the result of enthusiastic guidance and constant training, as demonstrated by the military-style command of "Kiwotsuke! (Attention!)" upon the journalist's arrival at the office, followed by the mine owner's acknowledgment with "Keirei! (Salute!)" and the order to "Yasume! (At ease!)" before resuming work.

The daily routine includes a morning worship similar to that at Tatsushiro Mine, with Kyūjō Yōhai (prayers to the Imperial Palace), worshiping the mountain gods, silent contemplation, followed by instructions from the section managers. On the 8th, 18th, and 28th of each month, special training days are held with returning veteran lieutenants as instructors, conducting individual and group training. The managers also rotate through the different sections and conduct lectures on current events. What is particularly noteworthy about this mine are the workplace patriotic groups. These groups are organized by teams at each site with the team leader becoming the patriotic group leader. The groups hold informal Japanese language classes during lunch and meetings to facilitate communication between management and workers.

It goes without saying that all employees and workers wear traditional jika tabi footwear and kyahan leg wraps. However, they also uniformly have shaved heads, a practice initiated by the staff to set an example, which quickly spread throughout the workplace patriotic groups, resulting in everyone having shaved heads.

As an example of upward communication, during the recent collection of donations for the death of Admiral Yamamoto and the heroic defense of Attu Island by General Yamasaki's forces, the workplace patriotic groups originally proposed a plan to contribute a certain percentage of income. However, a decision was made at a meeting of team leaders to work on public holidays without pay with the resolve to "die in battle on any day", donating the entire day's income as a contribution. This resulted in a sacred sum of 1,200 yen being donated.

These efforts reflect the effectiveness of the workplace groups and the manifestation of a total mobilization movement from the ground up, also showing that they recognize the current wartime circumstances.

However, the mountain is still young. With the expansion of production facilities in full swing as the increased production period approaches, material procurement is progressing smoothly, and groundbreaking production facilities are expected to be completed soon. Plans for special bonuses during the increased production period with competitions for rewards for high work efficiency, perfect attendance, and no tardiness are also finalized. As the workers' enthusiasm for the upcoming increased production period reaches a peak, the mine is thriving with activity, unaffected by the baseless rumors circulating in the streets. In the near future, production is expected to double, which aligns with the urgent needs of wartime Japan. (Special Correspondent Watanabe)

*Photo: Female mine workers descending the mountain*

[Transcription]

京城日報 1943年8月28日

特殊鉱増産を現地に視る（２）

鉱石界の高貴薬

コバルト鉱に増産の槌

報国鉱山の巻

昭和十五年の一月、それは雪の日であった。慶北慶山郡押梁面の、今は休山と化した一金山の廃坑附近に猟犬セッターを連れた一内地人の姿が見受けられた。猟銃を肩に何気なく廃坑に近づいて二、三歩．．．途端に一足前を進んでいた愛犬が深さ四十尺余地下水が溜まって井戸と化した曾ての廃坑内に転げ落ちてしまった。慌てて附近の部落に駆け戻り助けを求めた上漸く愛犬を救い上げたが、その際路傍に堆高く積まれたズリの中に発見された異様な鉱石に彼の目は輝いたのである。その鉱石こそ今や時代の脚光を浴びる特殊鉱界の花形コバルト鉱であり、狩猟姿の一内地人とは、言う迄もなく現報国コバルト鉱山鉱業主二宮衆三氏であった。

◇

元来、コバルトの世界生産はカナダ29％、仏蘭西26％、印度12％、南阿の英領ローデシア地方33％という比率で他の地域からは産出しないものといわれていた。尤も本邦内にも山口、兵庫、愛媛の各県下に多少の産出を見、我が朝鮮でも硫砒鉄鉱中の金、銀に多少随伴するのではあるが、それらはあまりにも微量であって、その殆どが採算上企業化し得ないものである。

而もこのコバルトは摩滅度の小なる特殊鋼原料としてピストン、シャフト、シリンダー等決戦下の我が科学兵器製造上、高貴薬にも比すべき貴重資源であり且つ人造石油、合成ゴムの触媒としても極めて重要資源なのである。斯かる折柄、品位〇、〇％推定鉱脈延長〇キロの同鉱山が発見されたことは、関係方面に対し大きな衝動を与えるには十分であった。

かくて十六年一月『報国コバルト鉱山』として正式に登録されたが、この登録の完了と同時に不思議にもかの愛犬が頓死したことは、この山の発見に絡む一挿話として、或は将来に於ける山の伝説的物語ともなろうか。

さて、それは兎も角として、時局柄この山へ最も関心と期待を寄せたのは軍部で、その援助によって十七年一月始業、急速な増産が進められているのである。

◇

記者は特に許されて鉱主二宮氏に案内され、仔細に視察することを得たが、遺憾ながら茲にその生産量は勿論、生産施設や計画、労務について記述することを得ない。併しその開発ぶりが、〇百万円の融資を受けて以来僅か二年の間にこれ程迄に急速に進められた、ということについては驚嘆せざるを得なかったわけだ。

現在稼働労務者〇〇〇名のうち〇〇〇名はその家族たる婦女子であり、その出勤率を含めてもなお稼働率〇〇％という好成績は、流石に彼等が時局鉱山労務者としての認識に徹底していることを物語るものであるといえよう。勿論その稼働率の好成績も熱意ある指導と絶えざる錬成の結果によるものであることは断るまでもない。それは記者が鉱主に案内されて事務所に到着したとき先ず『気を付けっ』の軍隊式号令に迎えられたことによっても判るのである。そして『敬礼っ』鉱主の答礼を以て『休めっ』再び執務は続けられるという調子である。そこで、茲の錬成を簡単に紹介しよう。

始業前の朝拝は達城鉱山同様、宮城遥拝、山神拝礼、黙祷、係課長の訓示であるが、毎月八、十八、二十八の日は特別錬成日として帰還勇士の中尉を教官として各個教練、部隊教練を実施している。そして各課長が各区を巡回、時局講演を行っているが特に変っているのは職場愛国班である。それは各現場の組毎に班を組織し組長が班長となり昼食時、現場に於いて固苦しくない国語の教授を行うほか随時常会を開き上意下通と下意上通に努めているのである。

職員も鉱員も全部が地下足袋、巻脚絆であることは云わずもがなだが、それらの全員がまた一様に丸刈りであることもこの職場愛国班の徹底による結果である。即ち職員の側から提唱された丸刈り励行は職員の率先垂範と共に全職場愛国班に伝えられ、その申合せとなって瞬く間に全員が丸坊主化してしまったのであった。

また下意上通の一例として、去る日山本元帥の戦死、アツツ島山崎部隊の玉砕に際して行われた健艦献金には当初事務所側から収入の幾パーセント宛かを拠出という形式による旨を職場愛国班に図ったのであるが職場班班長会議の結果、公休日を休まず『一日戦死』の覚悟で働き抜き、その全収入を献金としようということに一決。即座に全班に伝えられ、その結果は一千二百円の聖なる汗の結晶が献金されたのである。

これらは職場班の効果であると共に所謂下より盛り上がる総力運動の顕現であり同時に時局認識の表われとしても注目に値するものであろう。

しかし山はまだ若い。増産期間を目前に控えた今、山は生産施設の拡充に多忙の真っ最中だ。幸い資材の入手は順調で近く画期的増産施設完成の見透しもついている。増産期間中の特例給与として職場能率競争、無欠勤、無遅刻者への表彰方法等の計画も出来上がった。初めて迎える増産期間への労務者の情熱も愈々高潮し、世にこの山のことども発表されざるが故の、巷間に流布される愚かなデマを他所に、山は極めて明瞭に活気づいている。近い将来にその出鉱量は恐らく倍加するであろう。そしてそれはまた戦時日本の切実な要求でもあるのだ。（渡辺特派員記）【写真＝山を降りる鉱婦たち】

Source: https://archive.org/details/kjnp-1943-08-28/mode/1up

Model Korean mother left baby and bedridden husband behind at home to work as a clerk for Imperial Japanese Army, praised by boss for happily working overtime, early morning to late at night for 1/3 the usual pay without complaining, even when so exhausted she couldn't see straight (Feb. 1944)

Original caption: Mrs. Ahn reviewing the de-registration records.

This article features Mrs. Ahn, a Seoul native, who in the midst of war, leaves behind her baby and bedridden husband to work as a clerk for the Imperial Japanese Army, presumably handling paperwork for newly enlisted soldiers. Notably, her 7-year-old daughter is tasked with caring for her 2-year-old son, a decision that seems quite extreme by today's standards.

Initially, I surmised that Mrs. Ahn was married to a Japanese man with the surname Hirahara, as they were wed ten years prior to 1944, in 1934. This was before the Sōshi Kaimei, the period when Koreans adopted Japanese-style names en masse. However, I now harbor doubts about this assumption. The reason for my skepticism lies in the name of their son, Huichang, which is so distinctively Korean. This raises the possibility that the newspaper may have 'retroactively' claimed that the family went by the Hirahara name in 1934, even though they might not have adopted that name yet at that time.

Mrs. Ahn's portrayal in the article brings to mind the iconic Rosie the Riveter from the U.S. World War II era. However, unlike Rosie, who symbolized the American women working in manufacturing and production during the war, Mrs. Ahn is depicted as a clerk. Yet, both characters represent women stepping into roles traditionally held by men due to the demands of a global conflict. Mrs. Ahn is shown working longer, harder, and more efficiently than her colleagues, while accepting only a third of the standard pay. By contemporary standards, this portrayal seems to endorse a very toxic work culture, one that valorizes excessive work hours, underpayment, and overwhelming workloads, all in the name of national duty and conservation during the war. It makes me wonder just how much of an impact Imperial Japan's legacy might have had in shaping the work cultures of modern Japanese and Korean societies.

Such representations of 'model workers' were not uncommon in propaganda campaigns globally, but Imperial Japan's approach, particularly its praise for workers who eagerly accept lower wages on top of longer working hours, might be quite unique. Have you ever encountered any other piece of propaganda, anywhere in the world, where the model worker is praised for accepting lower wages?

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) February 5, 1944

Taking Over for Her Sick Husband, Mrs. Ahn Fights Three Times as Hard in Public Service

Working Women [Part 6]

Mrs. Ahn was at home where the warmth of the ondol barely kept the chill at bay. After putting her ten-month-old baby to sleep and attending to her bedridden husband, she boldly declared, 'To defeat the British and American beasts, I must devote myself to public service with all my might!' She cast aside her traditional role and, holding a pen in her hand at the Yongsan District Office, she impressively completed 120 copies of family register transcripts per day, astonishing her male colleagues with her patriotic fervor as a Korean woman.

Mrs. Ahn Gi-jeong (안기정, 安基貞), a 28-year-old resident of Jongno-gu, Doryeom-dong, was born in Seoul, the heart of the Korean Peninsula. She honed her virtues of a good wife and wise mother at the prestigious Gyeonggi Girls High School. Ten years ago, she married into the Hirahara family, building an enviable and harmonious household. Unexpectedly, a few years ago, her husband, the pillar of their family, fell ill. However, with determination and grit, she tirelessly cared for him through the nights without sleep, bravely battling through the ordeal of nursing him to health. Through her tireless care, he is on the path to recovery, just as the massive cannons of the annihilation campaign against the Anglo-Saxons are tearing through heaven and earth like thunderclouds booming on a clear day. In this era, men born in the Empire resoundingly march through the military gates to the beat of their military boots, while women, in place of men, sweat profusely on the production frontlines. She, too, is a woman of the Empire.

Her patriotic sincerity blazes like a flame, which led her to put an end to her indoor, anbang life. 'If my husband cannot serve, I will work twice as hard in his place,' she declared, looking resolute in her navy blue office uniform. Last summer, amid the rainy season, she took up a position in the Yongsan District Office's Family Register and Military Affairs Section. Comforting her two-year-old son, Huichang (희창, 煕昶), who clung to her and refused to leave her breast, she entrusted him to the care of her seven-year-old daughter, Aehui (애희, 愛姫). Starting work at her desk in the district office early in the morning, she immerses herself in her intense job at the office, staying well past 5 PM when most of the office employees leave work. Due to the current state of affairs, the Family Register and Military Affairs Section is so busy that they would even welcome the help of a cat's paw, making it not uncommon for her special duties to continue late into the night.

A glance at her attendance book shows it filled with red marks, half of which are overlaid with a purple stamp indicating 'special duty'. Her physical frame may be slender, but her spirit is robust; she has not missed a single day, akin to the diligence of an ox. Although it is not rare for employees to be diligent, she stands out for processing a large volume of 120 transcripts a day with lightning speed. Moreover, it is astonishing that, unlike the clock’s hands that may err, her writing is completely free of mistakes.

Mr. Tokumaru, the chief of the Family Register and Military Affairs Section, his cheeks flushed with emotion, said, 'If we were to pay a copywriter five sen per page for the amount of work Mrs. Ahn does in a month, it would cost 180 yen in monthly wages. However, Mrs. Ahn's salary is about a third of that. It’s not about the financial bottom line, but it can be considered a way of saving the expenses of the nation in wartime. Mrs. Ahn herself never dreams of criticizing the compensation for her skills. She minimizes her own living expenses and silently spreads fireworks at the tip of her pen. She is truly a treasure of our district office and an example of selfless public service'.

Mrs. Ahn, who passionately speaks of her patriotism for the Korean Peninsula, humbly says, 'When I return home after special duty, sometimes I am so tired that the telephone poles seem to double when I look at them. However, when I think of the brave soldiers of the Imperial Army, who, despite gunfire and heavy rain, fight with the lightness of goose feathers and wield demon-slaying swords in order to accomplish the grand undertaking of this unprecedented era, my fatigue seems insignificant. I fervently wish that more Korean women will take up the important task of supporting the holy war effort, and courageously spread sparks of struggle on the battleline of the workplace.' [Photo = Mrs. Ahn reviewing the de-registration records]

Industrial Association Discussion: At Yongsan Station, a regular discussion meeting was held in the instruction room at 2 PM on February 5th, inviting 170 members of the Seoul Iron and Steel Industrial Association to ensure full preparation for increased production.

[Transcription]

京城日報 1944年2月5日

病床の夫に代りで奉公

人の三倍も闘い抜く安さん

はたらく女性【６】

肌に粟の生ずる温突に、産声をあげて十ヶ月の幼児と病床の夫をねかし『米鬼英畜を撃つには、公務に粉骨砕身すべきだ』と颯爽と旧套をぬぎすて龍山区役所でペンを握り一日戸籍抄本百二十枚を書きのけ、有髯の男子を唖然たらしめる愛国半島女性がいる。

鐘路区都染町安基貞さん（二八）は半島の心臓部京城に生れ秀才の集る京畿高女で良妻賢母の婦徳を磨き、十年前に平原氏に嫁ぎ、よそ目もうらやましい和やかな家庭を築いて来たが意外にも数年前、大黒柱である主人が病み出した。歯を食いしばって夜も眠らず看病に敢闘した甲斐あって、日に日に見違えるほど恢復路を辿りつつある際、晴天にとどろいた群雲の如くアングロサクソン撃滅の巨砲は天地をつんざき、皇国に生をうけた男子は軍靴の響き高らかに軍門をくぐり、女性は男に代って生産戦線に熱汗を流す時代となった。彼女も皇国女性である。

愛国の至誠は焰と燃えあがり、遂に内房生活を清算したのである。『主人が御奉公出来ねば、私がその代り二倍も働こう』と紺の事務服姿も凛々しく龍山区役所戸籍兵務課に職を奉じたのは梅雨のふりしきる昨夏のことであった。乳房を離れまいと泣きつく煕昶君（二つ）をなだめては七つになる姉、愛姫ちゃんにおんぶさせて家をあとにし、早朝から区役所の机にかじりつき、血のにじむ激務に没頭するのだ。夕刻五時には一般職員は退庁するものの、時局柄戸籍兵務課は猫の手も借りたいほど忙しいので深夜まで特勤のつづく日も稀ではない。

出勤簿をのぞいて見れば赤印で埋まり、その赤印の半数は『特勤』と紫印が重ねて押されている。線は細いが精神力は旺盛なのか、一日も欠勤はないという牛のように勤勉な職員は決して珍しくないが、一日に抄本を百二十枚の多量を電光石火のように処理するのは花形安さんだけという。而も時計の針には、くるいがあっても安さんの字には誤字が皆無というから、なお驚く。

徳丸戸籍兵務課長は感激に両頬を紅潮させる乍ら語る。『安さんが一ヶ月働く仕事の量を一枚書くのに五銭をはらって雇う写字生に頼むと百八十円の月給をはらうことになるが、安さんの俸給はその三分の一位で、ソロバン勘定ではないが、決戦下国費の節約ともいえます。当の安さんは自分の技術に対する報酬の批判は夢にもせず自己の生活は最小限に切り下げ黙々とペン先に花火を散らす彼女こそ我が区役所の宝であり、滅私奉公の亀鑑でしょう』

愛国半島のため万丈の気焰を吐く安さんは謙遜して語る。『特勤して帰宅の際は疲れたせいか、電信柱が二つに見える時もありますが、しかし曠世の鴻業を完遂せんがために硝煙強雨のなか身を鴻毛の軽きにおき、降魔の利剣をふるう皇軍勇士を考えれば何ともありません。半島女性も一日も早く一人でも多く、聖業翼賛の重責を双肩に担い、勇躍職場戦線に敢闘の火花を散らすよう熱願しております』【写真＝除籍簿を調べる安さん】

工業組員懇談：龍山署では五日昼二時訓示室に京城鉄工工業組合百七十名を招き、定例懇談会を開催。増産陣の万全を期することになった。

Source: https://archive.org/details/kjnp-1944-02-05/page/n3/mode/1up

I finally accessed the 1945 Keijo Nippo (Gyeongseong Ilbo) archives in-person at the National Library of Korea - Korean employees apparently rebelled against their Japanese bosses in Nov. 1945 and took over news operations until the last issue published on Dec. 11, 1945

For over two years, I have been passionately posting about Keijo Nippo (Gyeongseong Ilbo), a newspaper from the Japanese colonial era of Korea. My posts have covered transcriptions and translations of numerous articles, shedding light on the oppression and humiliation experienced by the Korean people under Japanese colonial rule.

My primary source had been an archive on the Internet Archive which was anonymously uploaded there in 2021. However, it had its limitations. Notably, the entire 1945 collection was missing, and many pages were either illegible due to poor scan quality or page deterioration.

I am finally in Seoul, enjoying my much-postponed vacation. While I am indulging in the delightful food scene and visiting the main tourist attractions, the highlights of my trip so far have been meeting my old violin teacher Mr. Simon Kim, whom I had last met 34 years ago as an elementary school, and spending a day at the National Library of Korea. To many, a library might not be a tourist attraction, but for me, it was a treasure trove. I was eager to see how the tone of Keijo Nippo evolved through 1945, marking the surrender of Imperial Japan, the liberation of Korea, and the onset of the US and Soviet occupation of the Korean peninsula.

I am elated to share that I successfully accessed the newspaper volumes I sought. With the assistance of the English-speaking staff, I obtained a library card, and after an hour-long wait, I was handed the volumes in the reference room on the third floor. However, I discovered that these volumes were just reproductions of scanned copies, and not the original copies. Nonetheless, some pages were of superior quality compared to the Internet Archive. I also managed to scan numerous articles from 1939 to 1943. Unfortunately, the 1944 articles were generally of poorer quality than those on the Internet Archive.

The volumes of Keijo Nippo that I browsed.

The pages from August 15, 1945, onwards were particularly moving. This period marked the day of Korean liberation and the surrender of Imperial Japan. The newspaper's tone shifted dramatically, from calls for calm to announcements of Japanese repatriation, to becoming a mouthpiece for the American occupation. The stark contrast in the portrayal of Americans, from being vilified to celebrated, was striking.

But the most astonishing discovery was from November 1945. The Korean employees at Keijo Nippo apparently rebelled against their Japanese superiors and took over the newspaper's operations. As the ethnic Japanese staff bid their farewells in their statement in the November 1st issue, the Korean staff issued a statement in the November 2nd issue, pledging to continue writing in Japanese but with a renewed purpose - to uplift the Korean nation. This "Rogue Keijo Nippo" introduced many novelties, like Korean cartoons, which had never been in Keijo Nippo before, and they subtly Koreanized the Japanese language that they used. For example, they used 日人 instead of 日本人 for Japanese, and used 美軍 instead of 米軍 for US military. The rogue columnists wrote lots of essays directed at the remaining ethnic Japanese who were still not repatriated, condemning the "Japanese-Korean unification" ideology, Japanese imperialism and militarism, and Japanese supremacism that they had to endure for all these years. It seemed like they were expressing their pent-up frustrations and emotions that had been suppressed for a long time. Indeed, they were certainly harnessing their mastery of the Japanese language to tell us their true feelings for the first time. It did personally feel uncanny, since it felt like I was opening a time capsule, and I was discovering a message that was addressed to me, as if they wanted their voice to be heard in our world in 2023.

Many pages were like this, completely illegible

I amassed a sizeable collection of snapshots of newspaper pages, but I will gradually transcribe and translate all my intriguing finds as time allows. I extend my gratitude to the library staff who were accommodating, even allowing me to photograph the materials, which was technically prohibited. This was a stark contrast to my experience at the National Diet Library in Tokyo, where photography was strictly forbidden, and I had to use their copy service.

I remain hopeful that these invaluable newspapers will be digitized in high resolution in the future, making them accessible to everyone without the need for a physical visit.

Imperial Japan had postwar plans to quadruple Japanese settlers in Korea to dominate the most technologically intensive industries, and suppress Korean access to higher education to quell 'dissatisfaction' (June 1943)

I recently came across two intriguing news articles from the Japanese colonial period of Korean history that shed light on the intricacies of the colonial government's decision-making process. The goal was clear: they aimed to increase the number of ethnic Japanese people in Korea from 700,000 to a whopping 4 million to solidify Imperial Japan's colonial control over Korea. However, their approach to achieving this was not without its contradictions.

While the officials wished to increase the number of college-educated Koreans to boost industrial production, they were wary of producing too many. An oversaturated job market could lead to a surge of unemployed college graduates, sparking potential discontent.

Simultaneously, the resettlement of educated Japanese into Korea was to provide staffing for the newly developed industries. Yet, they had to strike a balance as overpopulation of these industries could have led to staffing shortages back in Japan.

Furthermore, they faced a dichotomy in their approach to supporting businesses. On one side, there was a desire to extend aid to existing small and medium-sized businesses to ensure their survival (maintenance and nurturing), and on the other side, resources were to be expended to usher in new businesses (expansion).

The postwar immigration policy of the colonial regime, as discussed in these articles, would have seen the settlement of over 3 million additional Japanese people into Korea. Most would have been employed in the most technologically intensive industries, and a significant number of Japanese farmers would have settled in the Korean countryside. Consequently, educational opportunities and job prospects would have been far more limited for Koreans than for the Japanese settlers, exacerbating existing ethnic inequality and discrimination.

What is both revealing and disturbing is that the phrase 'treated as Koreans' from the text was indicative of mistreatment. This phrase underlines the generalized notion that Koreans were not treated well, and surprisingly, colonial officials openly admitted to this discrimination happening in Japan.

Interestingly, there are also depictions of Korean cultural practices, such as upper-class Koreans not smoking unless elders permit them to, not using the term 'goodbye,' and subordinates speaking to superiors while standing over them. As someone not intimately familiar with these traditions, I would love to hear from our Korean members about the accuracy of these descriptions.

I'm sharing these articles to provide some context to the complex dynamics of the colonial period and invite thoughtful conversation. As always, let's keep exploring these issues.

Panelists from the colonial government in the roundtable discussion

(Translation)

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) June 19, 1943

A real look into the Korean Peninsula at war

Roundtable discussion with executives at the Interior Ministry of the Governor-General's Office (Part 5)

Take care to understand the differences in the customs of the upper-class households

Kōtaki Motoi, Director of the Production Bureau: In Korea, too, there are polite individuals in irritating households that have been brought up in Confucianism for generations. In such households, family members refrain from smoke in front of their elders. Unless explicitly given permission by their parents, children wouldn't even dare smoke if offered cigarettes as guests. It seems such strict manners are prevalent in the upper-class households of Korea. But such customs do not permeate the entire society. Furthermore, these customs can be strikingly different from those practiced in mainland Japan. For instance, in my household, I employ a maidservant who, according to Korean etiquette, stands and speaks even when the master is sitting. In other words, the maidservant stands up to speak while looming over her master. After speaking, she kneels down, places her hands on the floor, and then leaves without uttering a goodbye, because it is deemed inappropriate to sit together with the master. It is strange, but a simple phrase like "goodbye" do not exist. When the conversation ends, Koreans just bow silently and leave.

Nakai Kazuo, a member of the Interior Ministry and the Parliament: Evidently, the cultural differences are immense.

Shiota Seikō, Director of Department of Rural Villages: As Nakai-san previously pointed out, there is a prevalent belief that uneducated Koreans tend to migrate to mainland Japan, creating negative sentiments among the Japanese. However, this is not entirely true. Many educated Koreans also move to mainland Japan. However, when Koreans go to mainland Japan, they are generally treated as Koreans. Then, when those Koreans return to Korea, they tell others that mainland Japanese are extremely outrageous and have a sense of superiority. That is why we need to distinguish between the good ones and the bad ones.

Mr. Nakai: Speaking candidly about the student problem, I think it may be necessary to dissuade Korean youth from attending specialized schools or higher, such as law schools. Especially now, competition is fierce since many people want to enter specialized schools or higher in mainland Japan. One must be very competent to be able to enter such schools, but the problem is what happens after graduation. For example, it's quite difficult to be hired as a public servant regardless of whether you are Korean or Japanese. Dissatisfaction arises. Receiving a higher education may cause mental distress, and I think it may lead to very negative outcomes.

Director Shiota: Even if those with aspirations in technical fields go to schools in mainland Japan and acquire skills, when they return to Korea, there is a delicate issue in that the factories and mines in Korea are unable to accommodate them all.

Mr. Nakai: In fact, even in mainland Japan, we are now saying, "Close down the specialized schools or higher that are not directly useful for this war". The trend is moving in that direction. Ideologically, I think it would be good to strongly recommend a vocational education to our Korean compatriots as much as possible. Before, I thought that it would be good to have the Koreans work in the fields of science and engineering and have Korea be developed mainly by the hands of Koreans. But hearing your story, Director Shiota, it appears that the situation isn't that simple.

Yamana Mikio, Chief of the Documentation Division: We are focusing on giving the Koreans a practical education in junior high schools and below.

Morita Masayoshi, member of the Interior Ministry: There are 700,000 mainland Japanese and 24 million Korean people. Therefore, the 700,000 will have to lead the 24 million, but I think this number is small. Some people say that there must be at least 4 million mainland Japanese people on the Korean peninsula. Then, what are the strategies for increasing this number, and how should we proceed?

Mr. Nakai: I would like to approach this issue from the following perspective. The main theme of this provisional conference is enterprise reinforcement and production increase, with a particular focus on resolving the food shortage problem. I would like to further explore the relationship between enterprise reinforcement, the Governor-General's Office, and its impact on the Korean peninsula, before proceeding to tackle the current problem...

Director Kōtaki: In Korea, there are no enterprises similar to those in mainland Japan, either currently or under planning. That is what I meant when I said earlier that Korea is still a child. Therefore, we are not considering tackling the issues that mainland Japan is thinking about in a big way. Labor issues are being seriously considered, but the primary labor sources in Korea have traditionally been the rural areas. Small and medium-sized businesses in Korea are not primary labor sources, and they are something that we need to advance from now on. But even if we try to reinforce the small and medium-sized businesses in Korea now, I don't think that it will have much effect. Instead, we must expand the businesses, depending on what they are. Accordingly, the maintenance and nurturing of small and medium-sized businesses in Korea is what we have been doing so far.

Mainland Japan has alternated between the maintenance and nurturing phase and the reorganization phase, and as it enters the decisive stage of this great war, it is about to actively enter a reinforcement phase. In contrast, Korea has consistently been in the maintenance and nurturing phase from beginning to end, as the Governor-General's Office says, but actual problems cannot be solved this way. A growing sentiment of discontent is emerging. (to be continued...)

Welcoming the Desired Excellence in Technology, Immigration of Mainland Japanese Farmers also Welcome (June 20)

Director Kōtaki: One of the compelling reasons for maintaining and nurturing small and medium-sized businesses in Korea is that the relatively large population of mainland Japanese people who come to Korea is engaged in such industries. We can't easily rationalize and consolidate these, so we have been focusing on maintaining and nurturing them as before. However, this cannot continue indefinitely. For example, if the textile industry in mainland Japan is developed, then the flow of people from mainland Japan to Korea will drastically decrease. There is also a large proportion of mainland Japanese people involved in wholesaling. As the products handled by the wholesalers gradually decrease, there are concerns about wholesaling businesses imploding in various areas.

The production of daily necessities sold in Korea is still very scarce in Korea. We are heavily reliant on production in Osaka and other places in mainland Japan. If production in mainland Japan can't keep up, then products will become even scarcer in Korea. At this stage, we are backed into a corner, so we need to do something and take some measures to support small and medium-sized businesses. That's why we are preparing this budget. I can't say that it's the same for the whole industry, but as you know, the production of daily necessities is not enough today. We have aimed to make Korea an Asian continental military base. We consider this our mission, and in some respects, we are proud of it. In that sense, even small businesses in Korea will be run by mainland Japanese people. In the future, the lives of Koreans will become more Japanized, and the consumer goods consumed by mainland Japanese people and Korean people will become the same. Naturally, since there are transportation difficulties in sending daily necessities to the Asian continent, such as Northern China, Manchuria, or small places like Kwantung Leased Territory, we want each place to be self-sufficient. That's why we want Korea to supply itself with everything on a comprehensive basis. From that point of view, the time for reorganization has not yet come, and a considerable number of industries have already relocated here from mainland Japan due to the urgent need in Korea. I think there are more than 200 firms that have already relocated here, but I think we still have to grow more. However, even if we manage to find the funds and labor necessary for growth, the raw materials cannot be readily procured from mainland Japan. That's why we have to produce such raw materials in Korea.

Creating new factories will inevitably lead to idle facilities. However, it is also necessary use this opportunity to bring excellent technology from mainland Japan to Korea to make it a supply base for the Asian continent. Integration with excellent technology will be good for the businesses themselves. So it's not that we don't have to reorganize the industry at all. It's just that I think that we still need to keep encouraging small and medium-sized businesses.

Mr. Morita: So, in conclusion, it's going to be difficult to increase the number mainland Japanese people in Korea, who currently number 700,000?

Director Kōtaki: It's difficult, but if possible, I want to bring excellent technology to Korea. Electrochemical industries and light metal industries are going to expand rapidly. By having everyone from middle-level technicians, public servants, high-level technicians to lower-level leaders come in from mainland Japan, I think the overall technology level of Korea will improve, so I think we need to continue to bring in more people.

Also in rural areas, it would be very good if we could settle more mainland Japanese people, but since the situation now is such that Korean youths are helping out with farming in mainland Japan, I think it may be difficult.

Director Shiota: Having farmers from mainland Japan come here for the expansion and improvement of agricultural productivity would be very good. Such models exist here and there. For instance, it has been over ten years since about one hundred graduates from Katō Kanji's higher elementary school settled in the area along the route from Seoul to Wonsan. Furthermore, about one hundred and fifty children are currently attending the higher elementary school. These people truly embody the spirit of hard work. They built their own fancy homes, apparently made of brick, by employing Chinese laborers while they themselves also worked and earned wages. Even the Chinese laborers were astounded and claimed that they were more skilled than themselves. [laughter] They are farmers who have a very developed hard working spirit.

There's another instance of two brothers who received the same education and settled in a deserted mountain near Mount Kongō. Initially, when they started planting deciduous pine trees and corn on the mountain, the Korean people mocked them, questioning what could be achieved in such a place. However, nowadays, everyone is following their example and planting corn. Models like these exist in various places. The worst are the so-called 'haori peasants' who act like landlords and employ laborers for farming. They even buy their vegetables from the Chinese, so some of them are gradually becoming unsuccessful.

In Korea, there are quite a few immigrants who came through the Oriental Development Company, some of whom have been successful, while others have not. To name some recent outstanding cases, people from mainland Japan are coming to Korea and growing sweet potatoes. We thought the best yield in Korea would be about 200 kan [750 kg] per tan [~0.25 acre, ~0.1 hectare], but there are places in Gongju where the yield is 960 kan [3,600 kg]. Surrounding areas have all turned to sweet potato farming, and Chungcheongnam-do's sweet potato seedlings are in high demand. I believe that it's better to bring in one mainland Japanese farmer to Korea than to bring in ten mainland Japanese technicians. That's why I'm trying to bring in about 50 families of mainland Japanese farmers who have received an education like Katō Kanji's, but with the current situation, many farmers find it increasingly difficult to live in Korea and are leaving. There are various reasons, but young men are increasingly being drafted and dying in the war. If they stay in mainland Japan, relatives can somehow lend a hand, but here in Korea, there's nothing they can do, so some of them return to mainland Japan. Regardless of whether bringing in young, vigorous individuals from mainland Japan would work or not, there is a considerable demand for mainland Japanese farmers to settle in Korean rural areas.

I recently visited a place where there were eight households of mainland Japanese farmers, nine of whom had soldiers who were conscripted for war. In one household, a 16-year-old child was all alone, making a seedbed. In one irrigation association district, it seems everyone is trying to help in various ways, but it still seems daunting. Even though good farmers have come, there's no way to retain them. There is nothing better than to bring in mainland Japanese farmers, because it's certain that things will improve this way. (to be continued...)

(Transcription)

京城日報　1943年6月19日

決戦半島の真姿

内務省委員総督府幹部対談会（5）

上流家庭では厳格理解せよ、習慣の違い

上瀧基、殖産局長：朝鮮でも先祖代々儒教で育ったやかましい家には行儀正しいものもある。そういう家では例えば目上の人の前で煙草は喫まない。親子で来た客などに煙草をすすめても親が喫めといわない限りは喫まない。朝鮮でも上流家庭ではそういう厳格な作法があるようだ。ところが一般社会にそういうことはない。もう一つは若しそういう厳格なものがあったとしても、それが内地の場合と全然正反対なことがある。例えば私の家に女中を使っているが、朝鮮の流儀から言うと主人が坐っている時でも女中は立ったまま物を言うことが礼儀で、目上の人には立ちはだかって物を言う。手をついて『さようなら』を言わずにすっと立ち上がって言う。主人と同座ではいけないということなのだ。それから妙なことであるが、『さようなら』というような簡単な言葉がない。話がきれると、だまってお辞儀して帰ってしまう。

中井一夫・内務省委員・衆議院議員：非常に違ったところがあるのですね。

塩田正洪、農村局長：先程中井さんの仰有ったことの中に、内地にどうも教養の低い者が来るので内地人としてもいい感情が湧かんというお話であったが、実際は相当に教養のある者もいるわけである。ところが内地に行ってみると、一概に朝鮮人として扱われる。そこで今度は朝鮮に帰って来た連中は、どうも内地人は優越感を持っていて不埒千万だというようなことにもなる。いい分子と悪い分子との見さかいをつけて頂くことが必要だ。

中井氏：学生問題に就いて率直に言うと、私は朝鮮の青年を余り専門学校以上の法科というような学校にはやらないように仕向けることも必要ではないかと思う。殊に今は内地でも専門学校以上の学校には入学志願者が殺到していて非常な競争である。それに来て入学出来るというのは余程出来る人に違いないけれども、卒業後のことが一つの悩みである。例えば官公吏の採用問題でも、内鮮人を問わず余程困難だ。そこに不平が起る。高い養育を受けたために却って精神的な煩悶を来すということになって、非常に悪い結果を齎すようなことにもなると思う。

塩田局長：技術者方面でも志を立てて内地の学校に行って技術を修得していざ朝鮮に帰って来ても、工場鉱山では全部収容の余地がないとそこにデリケートな問題があるわけである。

中井氏：実は、私共は今内地でも『この戦争に直接役立たない学校なんか専門学校以上のものは閉鎖して了え』と言っている。機運は大分そういう風に動いている。思想的ないろんな関係から見ても、半島同胞には出来るだけ職業教育を大いに推奨することがいいのではないかと思う。そうして理工科方面をやらせて朝鮮の開発は大いに半島同胞の手でやらすということがいいのではないかと思っておったのであるが、塩田さんのお話を聞くとそれも簡単には行かないわけですね。

山名酒喜男、文書課長：中等学校以下は実業教育一点張りでやっている。

森田正義、内務省委員：内地人七十万、半島人二千四百万、そうすると七十万が二千四百万を指導して行かなければならぬことになるが、これでは数が少ないと思う。或る人は少なくとも半島に四百万の内地人はいなければならんといっている。そうすると、これを殖やす方法及び持ってゆき方について何か対策は．．．

中井氏：その問題に就いては私はこういう所から承りたいと思う。それは今度の臨時議会の主題は企業整備及び生産力増強、殊に食糧問題の解決ということが重点であるから、企業整備と朝鮮総督府との関係、どういう影響が半島に及ぶかという問題をお聴きして、それから今の問題にはいって頂いたらどうかと思うが．．．

上瀧局長：朝鮮としては、内地が現にやるし、これからやらんとするような企業がまだない。それがつまり先刻申しました朝鮮がまだ子供だということである。であるから内地が考えておるような問題は大きく取り上げるということは考えていない。労力の問題が真剣に取り上げられて来ているが、従来朝鮮の労力の源泉は農村にある。朝鮮に於ける中小商工業は労力の源泉とはならず、寧ろこれから進めて行かなければならない。そういうものを今整備してみたところで、大して効果はないと思う。ものに依ってはもっと拡充しなければならん。したがって朝鮮に於ける中小商工業は維持育成であるということで今日まで来ておるわけである。

内地は或る時には維持育成、或る時には整理統合ということで来て、結局この大戦争の決戦段階に入って積極的に整備ということが取り上げられて来ているが、朝鮮は終始一貫維持育成で来ているところで実情はどうかと言うと、総督府は維持育成というが現実の問題はそれで済まない。我々をどうして呉れるのだという気持ちが出て来ている。（つづく）

欲しい優秀な技術、内地農家の移住も歓迎（6月20日）

上瀧局長：朝鮮で中小商工業の維持育成という一つの有力な理由としては、朝鮮に来ている内地人の比較的多い階層は中小商工業であるが、これをうかつなことで整理統合ということは出来ないので、従来之等に維持育成という方面に努力して来たのであるが、現状はいつまでもそれでは行けない。例えば内地で繊維産業が整備されて行くとすれば、今まで内地から朝鮮にはいっていたものがどんどん減る。卸に就いては相当内地人方面が多い。だんだん取り扱う商品が減って来るにしたがって自滅するのではないかと心配を各方面でしている。

朝鮮で販売されておる日常生活必需品の生産はまだまだ朝鮮では非常に少ない。大阪その他に多く依存している。それが内地でも足らなくなると朝鮮では益々少なくなって行く。こういう状態にある中小商工業に対して何等かの対策をとらなければならぬという追いつめられた段階に立って、なんとかしなければならないというので、そういう予算も出すことになっている。工業に就いても同じだとは言えぬが、生活必要品の製造業は御承知のように今日とても足らない。朝鮮はかねてから大陸兵站基地ということを目標にして、我々もそれを自任し、或る面に於いては自負して来ておる。そういった意味から朝鮮の小さいものでもそれが内地人の事業であり、また今後益々朝鮮人の生活は内地化され、内鮮人間の消費物資が共通して来るようになると自然、大陸方面に対してどうしても出したい生活必需品は北支、満州、或いは小さくいって関東州というような所でも、輸送の困難というようなことから、それぞれ自給自足をはかりたいということであるが、朝鮮としては、一歩出て全般的に何とかして供給したいという考えを持っている。そういう点からまだまだ整理の機会に至らず、そういった朝鮮の差し迫った必要からして既に内地から移駐して来た工業は相当の数になっている。二百以上もあるだろうと思う。しかしまだまだ殖やして行かなければならんと思う。しかし殖やすについてはそれ等に必要な資金とか労力は何とかするとしても、原材料は中中内地からは来ない。だから朝鮮でそういう原材料を生産して行かなければならない。

新しい工場をどんどん造ると遊休設備が出来ることになる。しかしこういう機会にこそ内地の優秀技術を朝鮮に入れて大陸の供給基地たらしめるということも必要である。技術のなってないものは優秀な技術に統合して行けば事業自体にもいい。だから工業の面でも全然整理しなくていいというのではないが、大体中小工業というようなものは、やはり奨励して行かなければならんじゃないかと考えている。

森田氏：そうすると結論として七十万の内地人を殖やすということは、中々難しいということになりますか。

上瀧局長：難しいのですが、出来れば優秀な技術を朝鮮に持って来たい。電気化学工業とか軽金属工業というようなものは、これからどんどん拡充されて行くわけで、そういう所の中堅技術者、公務員、ずっと上の高級技術者から下の方の幹部職工といったようなところまで、内地からどんどんはいって来ることに依って朝鮮全般の技術の程度も向上すると思うから、そういう方面にまだまだ入れなければならんと思う。

それから農村に於いても農村に内地人を植え付けるということは出来れば非常にいいことであるが、朝鮮の青年が内地に手伝いに行っている位であるから、これは言うべくして中々難しいと思う。

塩田局長：農業生産力の拡充増強に内地の農家が居ることは非常にいい。そういうモデルが方々にある。例えば京城から元山に行く途中に加藤完治さんの高等国民学校を出たのが百戸ばかり来ているが、もう十年以上になる。それからもう百五十人位子供が国民学校に通っている。これなんぞ本当に勤労精神の体得者で、自分達だけで家を造った、煉瓦造りみたようなしゃれた家ですが、それを支那人に請け負わして労力は自分達が雇われて行って人夫賃を貰った。さすがの支那人も舌を巻いて、我等よりうわ手だと言った（笑い声）それ位に勤労精神の発達した農民である。

もう一つはやはりそれと同じ教育を受けた者で、金剛山の近くで荒れた山に入った兄弟がある。最初は山に落葉松を植えたり玉蜀黍を植えたりしていると、それを見て朝鮮人が、「あんなところに何が出来るか」と言って嘲笑っていた。ところが近頃はみんなそれに倣って玉蜀黍を植えたりしている。そういうモデルは方々にある。一番いけないのは羽織百姓というやつで、地主気取りで労働者を使って農業をする。野菜も支那人から買うというようなので、だんだんいけなくなったのもある。

朝鮮では東拓の手を介して来た移民が相当にあるが、成功したのもあり、成功しないものもある。また極めく最近の例では内地人で朝鮮に来て薩摩藷作りをやっているのである。我々も朝鮮ではせいぜい反当り二百貫位がいいところだと思っていたが、公州で九百六十貫を挙げている所がある。その周囲は皆藷作りになって、忠南の藷の苗を一手に出しているが、そこで私は考える。技術者が十人居るよりも一人の農家を朝鮮に入れた方がいい。それで今加藤完治さんあたりの教育を受けた内地農家を五十戸位入れたいと思ってやっているが、こういう時勢になってだんだん住み難くくなって朝鮮を退散する農家が多くなった。いろんな事情もあるが、だんだん若い者は壮丁に取られて、戦死をしたというようなことになると、内地に居れば親族縁達が何とか手伝ってもくれるが、ここではどうにもならんというので帰るのもある。若盛りの者を内地から連れて来てうまく行くかどうか、朝鮮の農村でも内地農家を入れて貰いたいという声は相当にある。

この間に行った所では、内地農家が八戸あって、そこから九人も出征しておる。その中の一軒では誰もいないので十六になる子供が一人で苗床を作ってやっていた。水利組合地区でみんなで色々面倒を見ているらしいが、しかしそういうことでは心細いらしい。折角いい農家が来ても、それを足止めする方法がない。内地農家を入れるに越したことはない。必ずよくなるに決まっているのだから（つづく）

Source 1: https://www.archive.org/details/kjnp-1943-06-19

Source 2: https://www.archive.org/details/kjnp-1943-06-20