Imperial Japan had postwar plans to quadruple Japanese settlers in Korea to dominate the most technologically intensive industries, and suppress Korean access to higher education to quell 'dissatisfaction' (June 1943)

I recently came across two intriguing news articles from the Japanese colonial period of Korean history that shed light on the intricacies of the colonial government's decision-making process. The goal was clear: they aimed to increase the number of ethnic Japanese people in Korea from 700,000 to a whopping 4 million to solidify Imperial Japan's colonial control over Korea. However, their approach to achieving this was not without its contradictions.

While the officials wished to increase the number of college-educated Koreans to boost industrial production, they were wary of producing too many. An oversaturated job market could lead to a surge of unemployed college graduates, sparking potential discontent.

Simultaneously, the resettlement of educated Japanese into Korea was to provide staffing for the newly developed industries. Yet, they had to strike a balance as overpopulation of these industries could have led to staffing shortages back in Japan.

Furthermore, they faced a dichotomy in their approach to supporting businesses. On one side, there was a desire to extend aid to existing small and medium-sized businesses to ensure their survival (maintenance and nurturing), and on the other side, resources were to be expended to usher in new businesses (expansion).

The postwar immigration policy of the colonial regime, as discussed in these articles, would have seen the settlement of over 3 million additional Japanese people into Korea. Most would have been employed in the most technologically intensive industries, and a significant number of Japanese farmers would have settled in the Korean countryside. Consequently, educational opportunities and job prospects would have been far more limited for Koreans than for the Japanese settlers, exacerbating existing ethnic inequality and discrimination.

What is both revealing and disturbing is that the phrase 'treated as Koreans' from the text was indicative of mistreatment. This phrase underlines the generalized notion that Koreans were not treated well, and surprisingly, colonial officials openly admitted to this discrimination happening in Japan.

Interestingly, there are also depictions of Korean cultural practices, such as upper-class Koreans not smoking unless elders permit them to, not using the term 'goodbye,' and subordinates speaking to superiors while standing over them. As someone not intimately familiar with these traditions, I would love to hear from our Korean members about the accuracy of these descriptions.

I'm sharing these articles to provide some context to the complex dynamics of the colonial period and invite thoughtful conversation. As always, let's keep exploring these issues.

Panelists from the colonial government in the roundtable discussion

(Translation)

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) June 19, 1943

A real look into the Korean Peninsula at war

Roundtable discussion with executives at the Interior Ministry of the Governor-General's Office (Part 5)

Take care to understand the differences in the customs of the upper-class households

Kōtaki Motoi, Director of the Production Bureau: In Korea, too, there are polite individuals in irritating households that have been brought up in Confucianism for generations. In such households, family members refrain from smoke in front of their elders. Unless explicitly given permission by their parents, children wouldn't even dare smoke if offered cigarettes as guests. It seems such strict manners are prevalent in the upper-class households of Korea. But such customs do not permeate the entire society. Furthermore, these customs can be strikingly different from those practiced in mainland Japan. For instance, in my household, I employ a maidservant who, according to Korean etiquette, stands and speaks even when the master is sitting. In other words, the maidservant stands up to speak while looming over her master. After speaking, she kneels down, places her hands on the floor, and then leaves without uttering a goodbye, because it is deemed inappropriate to sit together with the master. It is strange, but a simple phrase like "goodbye" do not exist. When the conversation ends, Koreans just bow silently and leave.

Nakai Kazuo, a member of the Interior Ministry and the Parliament: Evidently, the cultural differences are immense.

Shiota Seikō, Director of Department of Rural Villages: As Nakai-san previously pointed out, there is a prevalent belief that uneducated Koreans tend to migrate to mainland Japan, creating negative sentiments among the Japanese. However, this is not entirely true. Many educated Koreans also move to mainland Japan. However, when Koreans go to mainland Japan, they are generally treated as Koreans. Then, when those Koreans return to Korea, they tell others that mainland Japanese are extremely outrageous and have a sense of superiority. That is why we need to distinguish between the good ones and the bad ones.

Mr. Nakai: Speaking candidly about the student problem, I think it may be necessary to dissuade Korean youth from attending specialized schools or higher, such as law schools. Especially now, competition is fierce since many people want to enter specialized schools or higher in mainland Japan. One must be very competent to be able to enter such schools, but the problem is what happens after graduation. For example, it's quite difficult to be hired as a public servant regardless of whether you are Korean or Japanese. Dissatisfaction arises. Receiving a higher education may cause mental distress, and I think it may lead to very negative outcomes.

Director Shiota: Even if those with aspirations in technical fields go to schools in mainland Japan and acquire skills, when they return to Korea, there is a delicate issue in that the factories and mines in Korea are unable to accommodate them all.

Mr. Nakai: In fact, even in mainland Japan, we are now saying, "Close down the specialized schools or higher that are not directly useful for this war". The trend is moving in that direction. Ideologically, I think it would be good to strongly recommend a vocational education to our Korean compatriots as much as possible. Before, I thought that it would be good to have the Koreans work in the fields of science and engineering and have Korea be developed mainly by the hands of Koreans. But hearing your story, Director Shiota, it appears that the situation isn't that simple.

Yamana Mikio, Chief of the Documentation Division: We are focusing on giving the Koreans a practical education in junior high schools and below.

Morita Masayoshi, member of the Interior Ministry: There are 700,000 mainland Japanese and 24 million Korean people. Therefore, the 700,000 will have to lead the 24 million, but I think this number is small. Some people say that there must be at least 4 million mainland Japanese people on the Korean peninsula. Then, what are the strategies for increasing this number, and how should we proceed?

Mr. Nakai: I would like to approach this issue from the following perspective. The main theme of this provisional conference is enterprise reinforcement and production increase, with a particular focus on resolving the food shortage problem. I would like to further explore the relationship between enterprise reinforcement, the Governor-General's Office, and its impact on the Korean peninsula, before proceeding to tackle the current problem...

Director Kōtaki: In Korea, there are no enterprises similar to those in mainland Japan, either currently or under planning. That is what I meant when I said earlier that Korea is still a child. Therefore, we are not considering tackling the issues that mainland Japan is thinking about in a big way. Labor issues are being seriously considered, but the primary labor sources in Korea have traditionally been the rural areas. Small and medium-sized businesses in Korea are not primary labor sources, and they are something that we need to advance from now on. But even if we try to reinforce the small and medium-sized businesses in Korea now, I don't think that it will have much effect. Instead, we must expand the businesses, depending on what they are. Accordingly, the maintenance and nurturing of small and medium-sized businesses in Korea is what we have been doing so far.

Mainland Japan has alternated between the maintenance and nurturing phase and the reorganization phase, and as it enters the decisive stage of this great war, it is about to actively enter a reinforcement phase. In contrast, Korea has consistently been in the maintenance and nurturing phase from beginning to end, as the Governor-General's Office says, but actual problems cannot be solved this way. A growing sentiment of discontent is emerging. (to be continued...)

Welcoming the Desired Excellence in Technology, Immigration of Mainland Japanese Farmers also Welcome (June 20)

Director Kōtaki: One of the compelling reasons for maintaining and nurturing small and medium-sized businesses in Korea is that the relatively large population of mainland Japanese people who come to Korea is engaged in such industries. We can't easily rationalize and consolidate these, so we have been focusing on maintaining and nurturing them as before. However, this cannot continue indefinitely. For example, if the textile industry in mainland Japan is developed, then the flow of people from mainland Japan to Korea will drastically decrease. There is also a large proportion of mainland Japanese people involved in wholesaling. As the products handled by the wholesalers gradually decrease, there are concerns about wholesaling businesses imploding in various areas.

The production of daily necessities sold in Korea is still very scarce in Korea. We are heavily reliant on production in Osaka and other places in mainland Japan. If production in mainland Japan can't keep up, then products will become even scarcer in Korea. At this stage, we are backed into a corner, so we need to do something and take some measures to support small and medium-sized businesses. That's why we are preparing this budget. I can't say that it's the same for the whole industry, but as you know, the production of daily necessities is not enough today. We have aimed to make Korea an Asian continental military base. We consider this our mission, and in some respects, we are proud of it. In that sense, even small businesses in Korea will be run by mainland Japanese people. In the future, the lives of Koreans will become more Japanized, and the consumer goods consumed by mainland Japanese people and Korean people will become the same. Naturally, since there are transportation difficulties in sending daily necessities to the Asian continent, such as Northern China, Manchuria, or small places like Kwantung Leased Territory, we want each place to be self-sufficient. That's why we want Korea to supply itself with everything on a comprehensive basis. From that point of view, the time for reorganization has not yet come, and a considerable number of industries have already relocated here from mainland Japan due to the urgent need in Korea. I think there are more than 200 firms that have already relocated here, but I think we still have to grow more. However, even if we manage to find the funds and labor necessary for growth, the raw materials cannot be readily procured from mainland Japan. That's why we have to produce such raw materials in Korea.

Creating new factories will inevitably lead to idle facilities. However, it is also necessary use this opportunity to bring excellent technology from mainland Japan to Korea to make it a supply base for the Asian continent. Integration with excellent technology will be good for the businesses themselves. So it's not that we don't have to reorganize the industry at all. It's just that I think that we still need to keep encouraging small and medium-sized businesses.

Mr. Morita: So, in conclusion, it's going to be difficult to increase the number mainland Japanese people in Korea, who currently number 700,000?

Director Kōtaki: It's difficult, but if possible, I want to bring excellent technology to Korea. Electrochemical industries and light metal industries are going to expand rapidly. By having everyone from middle-level technicians, public servants, high-level technicians to lower-level leaders come in from mainland Japan, I think the overall technology level of Korea will improve, so I think we need to continue to bring in more people.

Also in rural areas, it would be very good if we could settle more mainland Japanese people, but since the situation now is such that Korean youths are helping out with farming in mainland Japan, I think it may be difficult.

Director Shiota: Having farmers from mainland Japan come here for the expansion and improvement of agricultural productivity would be very good. Such models exist here and there. For instance, it has been over ten years since about one hundred graduates from Katō Kanji's higher elementary school settled in the area along the route from Seoul to Wonsan. Furthermore, about one hundred and fifty children are currently attending the higher elementary school. These people truly embody the spirit of hard work. They built their own fancy homes, apparently made of brick, by employing Chinese laborers while they themselves also worked and earned wages. Even the Chinese laborers were astounded and claimed that they were more skilled than themselves. [laughter] They are farmers who have a very developed hard working spirit.

There's another instance of two brothers who received the same education and settled in a deserted mountain near Mount Kongō. Initially, when they started planting deciduous pine trees and corn on the mountain, the Korean people mocked them, questioning what could be achieved in such a place. However, nowadays, everyone is following their example and planting corn. Models like these exist in various places. The worst are the so-called 'haori peasants' who act like landlords and employ laborers for farming. They even buy their vegetables from the Chinese, so some of them are gradually becoming unsuccessful.

In Korea, there are quite a few immigrants who came through the Oriental Development Company, some of whom have been successful, while others have not. To name some recent outstanding cases, people from mainland Japan are coming to Korea and growing sweet potatoes. We thought the best yield in Korea would be about 200 kan [750 kg] per tan [~0.25 acre, ~0.1 hectare], but there are places in Gongju where the yield is 960 kan [3,600 kg]. Surrounding areas have all turned to sweet potato farming, and Chungcheongnam-do's sweet potato seedlings are in high demand. I believe that it's better to bring in one mainland Japanese farmer to Korea than to bring in ten mainland Japanese technicians. That's why I'm trying to bring in about 50 families of mainland Japanese farmers who have received an education like Katō Kanji's, but with the current situation, many farmers find it increasingly difficult to live in Korea and are leaving. There are various reasons, but young men are increasingly being drafted and dying in the war. If they stay in mainland Japan, relatives can somehow lend a hand, but here in Korea, there's nothing they can do, so some of them return to mainland Japan. Regardless of whether bringing in young, vigorous individuals from mainland Japan would work or not, there is a considerable demand for mainland Japanese farmers to settle in Korean rural areas.

I recently visited a place where there were eight households of mainland Japanese farmers, nine of whom had soldiers who were conscripted for war. In one household, a 16-year-old child was all alone, making a seedbed. In one irrigation association district, it seems everyone is trying to help in various ways, but it still seems daunting. Even though good farmers have come, there's no way to retain them. There is nothing better than to bring in mainland Japanese farmers, because it's certain that things will improve this way. (to be continued...)

(Transcription)

京城日報　1943年6月19日

決戦半島の真姿

内務省委員総督府幹部対談会（5）

上流家庭では厳格理解せよ、習慣の違い

上瀧基、殖産局長：朝鮮でも先祖代々儒教で育ったやかましい家には行儀正しいものもある。そういう家では例えば目上の人の前で煙草は喫まない。親子で来た客などに煙草をすすめても親が喫めといわない限りは喫まない。朝鮮でも上流家庭ではそういう厳格な作法があるようだ。ところが一般社会にそういうことはない。もう一つは若しそういう厳格なものがあったとしても、それが内地の場合と全然正反対なことがある。例えば私の家に女中を使っているが、朝鮮の流儀から言うと主人が坐っている時でも女中は立ったまま物を言うことが礼儀で、目上の人には立ちはだかって物を言う。手をついて『さようなら』を言わずにすっと立ち上がって言う。主人と同座ではいけないということなのだ。それから妙なことであるが、『さようなら』というような簡単な言葉がない。話がきれると、だまってお辞儀して帰ってしまう。

中井一夫・内務省委員・衆議院議員：非常に違ったところがあるのですね。

塩田正洪、農村局長：先程中井さんの仰有ったことの中に、内地にどうも教養の低い者が来るので内地人としてもいい感情が湧かんというお話であったが、実際は相当に教養のある者もいるわけである。ところが内地に行ってみると、一概に朝鮮人として扱われる。そこで今度は朝鮮に帰って来た連中は、どうも内地人は優越感を持っていて不埒千万だというようなことにもなる。いい分子と悪い分子との見さかいをつけて頂くことが必要だ。

中井氏：学生問題に就いて率直に言うと、私は朝鮮の青年を余り専門学校以上の法科というような学校にはやらないように仕向けることも必要ではないかと思う。殊に今は内地でも専門学校以上の学校には入学志願者が殺到していて非常な競争である。それに来て入学出来るというのは余程出来る人に違いないけれども、卒業後のことが一つの悩みである。例えば官公吏の採用問題でも、内鮮人を問わず余程困難だ。そこに不平が起る。高い養育を受けたために却って精神的な煩悶を来すということになって、非常に悪い結果を齎すようなことにもなると思う。

塩田局長：技術者方面でも志を立てて内地の学校に行って技術を修得していざ朝鮮に帰って来ても、工場鉱山では全部収容の余地がないとそこにデリケートな問題があるわけである。

中井氏：実は、私共は今内地でも『この戦争に直接役立たない学校なんか専門学校以上のものは閉鎖して了え』と言っている。機運は大分そういう風に動いている。思想的ないろんな関係から見ても、半島同胞には出来るだけ職業教育を大いに推奨することがいいのではないかと思う。そうして理工科方面をやらせて朝鮮の開発は大いに半島同胞の手でやらすということがいいのではないかと思っておったのであるが、塩田さんのお話を聞くとそれも簡単には行かないわけですね。

山名酒喜男、文書課長：中等学校以下は実業教育一点張りでやっている。

森田正義、内務省委員：内地人七十万、半島人二千四百万、そうすると七十万が二千四百万を指導して行かなければならぬことになるが、これでは数が少ないと思う。或る人は少なくとも半島に四百万の内地人はいなければならんといっている。そうすると、これを殖やす方法及び持ってゆき方について何か対策は．．．

中井氏：その問題に就いては私はこういう所から承りたいと思う。それは今度の臨時議会の主題は企業整備及び生産力増強、殊に食糧問題の解決ということが重点であるから、企業整備と朝鮮総督府との関係、どういう影響が半島に及ぶかという問題をお聴きして、それから今の問題にはいって頂いたらどうかと思うが．．．

上瀧局長：朝鮮としては、内地が現にやるし、これからやらんとするような企業がまだない。それがつまり先刻申しました朝鮮がまだ子供だということである。であるから内地が考えておるような問題は大きく取り上げるということは考えていない。労力の問題が真剣に取り上げられて来ているが、従来朝鮮の労力の源泉は農村にある。朝鮮に於ける中小商工業は労力の源泉とはならず、寧ろこれから進めて行かなければならない。そういうものを今整備してみたところで、大して効果はないと思う。ものに依ってはもっと拡充しなければならん。したがって朝鮮に於ける中小商工業は維持育成であるということで今日まで来ておるわけである。

内地は或る時には維持育成、或る時には整理統合ということで来て、結局この大戦争の決戦段階に入って積極的に整備ということが取り上げられて来ているが、朝鮮は終始一貫維持育成で来ているところで実情はどうかと言うと、総督府は維持育成というが現実の問題はそれで済まない。我々をどうして呉れるのだという気持ちが出て来ている。（つづく）

欲しい優秀な技術、内地農家の移住も歓迎（6月20日）

上瀧局長：朝鮮で中小商工業の維持育成という一つの有力な理由としては、朝鮮に来ている内地人の比較的多い階層は中小商工業であるが、これをうかつなことで整理統合ということは出来ないので、従来之等に維持育成という方面に努力して来たのであるが、現状はいつまでもそれでは行けない。例えば内地で繊維産業が整備されて行くとすれば、今まで内地から朝鮮にはいっていたものがどんどん減る。卸に就いては相当内地人方面が多い。だんだん取り扱う商品が減って来るにしたがって自滅するのではないかと心配を各方面でしている。

朝鮮で販売されておる日常生活必需品の生産はまだまだ朝鮮では非常に少ない。大阪その他に多く依存している。それが内地でも足らなくなると朝鮮では益々少なくなって行く。こういう状態にある中小商工業に対して何等かの対策をとらなければならぬという追いつめられた段階に立って、なんとかしなければならないというので、そういう予算も出すことになっている。工業に就いても同じだとは言えぬが、生活必要品の製造業は御承知のように今日とても足らない。朝鮮はかねてから大陸兵站基地ということを目標にして、我々もそれを自任し、或る面に於いては自負して来ておる。そういった意味から朝鮮の小さいものでもそれが内地人の事業であり、また今後益々朝鮮人の生活は内地化され、内鮮人間の消費物資が共通して来るようになると自然、大陸方面に対してどうしても出したい生活必需品は北支、満州、或いは小さくいって関東州というような所でも、輸送の困難というようなことから、それぞれ自給自足をはかりたいということであるが、朝鮮としては、一歩出て全般的に何とかして供給したいという考えを持っている。そういう点からまだまだ整理の機会に至らず、そういった朝鮮の差し迫った必要からして既に内地から移駐して来た工業は相当の数になっている。二百以上もあるだろうと思う。しかしまだまだ殖やして行かなければならんと思う。しかし殖やすについてはそれ等に必要な資金とか労力は何とかするとしても、原材料は中中内地からは来ない。だから朝鮮でそういう原材料を生産して行かなければならない。

新しい工場をどんどん造ると遊休設備が出来ることになる。しかしこういう機会にこそ内地の優秀技術を朝鮮に入れて大陸の供給基地たらしめるということも必要である。技術のなってないものは優秀な技術に統合して行けば事業自体にもいい。だから工業の面でも全然整理しなくていいというのではないが、大体中小工業というようなものは、やはり奨励して行かなければならんじゃないかと考えている。

森田氏：そうすると結論として七十万の内地人を殖やすということは、中々難しいということになりますか。

上瀧局長：難しいのですが、出来れば優秀な技術を朝鮮に持って来たい。電気化学工業とか軽金属工業というようなものは、これからどんどん拡充されて行くわけで、そういう所の中堅技術者、公務員、ずっと上の高級技術者から下の方の幹部職工といったようなところまで、内地からどんどんはいって来ることに依って朝鮮全般の技術の程度も向上すると思うから、そういう方面にまだまだ入れなければならんと思う。

それから農村に於いても農村に内地人を植え付けるということは出来れば非常にいいことであるが、朝鮮の青年が内地に手伝いに行っている位であるから、これは言うべくして中々難しいと思う。

塩田局長：農業生産力の拡充増強に内地の農家が居ることは非常にいい。そういうモデルが方々にある。例えば京城から元山に行く途中に加藤完治さんの高等国民学校を出たのが百戸ばかり来ているが、もう十年以上になる。それからもう百五十人位子供が国民学校に通っている。これなんぞ本当に勤労精神の体得者で、自分達だけで家を造った、煉瓦造りみたようなしゃれた家ですが、それを支那人に請け負わして労力は自分達が雇われて行って人夫賃を貰った。さすがの支那人も舌を巻いて、我等よりうわ手だと言った（笑い声）それ位に勤労精神の発達した農民である。

もう一つはやはりそれと同じ教育を受けた者で、金剛山の近くで荒れた山に入った兄弟がある。最初は山に落葉松を植えたり玉蜀黍を植えたりしていると、それを見て朝鮮人が、「あんなところに何が出来るか」と言って嘲笑っていた。ところが近頃はみんなそれに倣って玉蜀黍を植えたりしている。そういうモデルは方々にある。一番いけないのは羽織百姓というやつで、地主気取りで労働者を使って農業をする。野菜も支那人から買うというようなので、だんだんいけなくなったのもある。

朝鮮では東拓の手を介して来た移民が相当にあるが、成功したのもあり、成功しないものもある。また極めく最近の例では内地人で朝鮮に来て薩摩藷作りをやっているのである。我々も朝鮮ではせいぜい反当り二百貫位がいいところだと思っていたが、公州で九百六十貫を挙げている所がある。その周囲は皆藷作りになって、忠南の藷の苗を一手に出しているが、そこで私は考える。技術者が十人居るよりも一人の農家を朝鮮に入れた方がいい。それで今加藤完治さんあたりの教育を受けた内地農家を五十戸位入れたいと思ってやっているが、こういう時勢になってだんだん住み難くくなって朝鮮を退散する農家が多くなった。いろんな事情もあるが、だんだん若い者は壮丁に取られて、戦死をしたというようなことになると、内地に居れば親族縁達が何とか手伝ってもくれるが、ここではどうにもならんというので帰るのもある。若盛りの者を内地から連れて来てうまく行くかどうか、朝鮮の農村でも内地農家を入れて貰いたいという声は相当にある。

この間に行った所では、内地農家が八戸あって、そこから九人も出征しておる。その中の一軒では誰もいないので十六になる子供が一人で苗床を作ってやっていた。水利組合地区でみんなで色々面倒を見ているらしいが、しかしそういうことでは心細いらしい。折角いい農家が来ても、それを足止めする方法がない。内地農家を入れるに越したことはない。必ずよくなるに決まっているのだから（つづく）

Source 1: https://www.archive.org/details/kjnp-1943-06-19

Source 2: https://www.archive.org/details/kjnp-1943-06-20

Ordinary rural Koreans including men, women, elderly, little girls were forcibly worked to collect organic debris, animal manure, human feces/urine and make organic fertilizer to increase agricultural production for Imperial Japan's war effort (April 1944)

The following three articles are from April 1944, when Imperial Japan was into its third year of fighting an all-out war against the United States in World War II. Food shortages were rampant, and the pressure was on to increase food production at any cost. Chemical fertilizers were scarce due to war production needs, so the Imperial Japanese colonial government of Korea mobilized the whole country to increase organic fertilizer production using human feces and urine. I selected these three articles to help piece together what was going on.

The first article describes a Volunteer Corps of young Korean men in one Seoul neighborhood hauling essentially human fecal sludge from bathrooms. The second article is a set of instructions on how to make organic fertilizer using organic debris and human feces and urine, digging pits, alternating layers of human feces and soil, and letting them sit to decompose. The third article is a very lengthy statement from the Governor-General’s Office, addressed to all of Korea, giving orders on how to increase organic fertilizer production. Note that organic fertilizers are called ‘self-supplied fertilizers’ throughout this article. Despite their best efforts, chemical fertilizers apparently could not be avoided for growing seeds.

Since this third article is such a tedious read, I’ve underlined some key passages to pay attention to. The government order expected everyone in Korea, including men, women, the elderly, little girls, to participate in this production. Labor was forcibly mobilized through the Patriotic Groups (JP: aikoku-han, KR: aeguk-ban, 愛國班) the neighborhood cells which were the local arm of the Korean Federation of National Power (国民総力朝鮮連盟, 국민총력조선연맹) , the single ruling party of colonial Korea. If previous patterns hold, then the government would ask the Patriotic Group leader (the Korean collaborator intermediary) for laborers (example: ‘Who can you spare?’), and the leader would ‘volunteer’ these laborers from among the residents he knows in his own Patriotic Group (example: ‘I think woman A and little girl B have some free time on their hands, and they can collect fallen leaves. I can volunteer them to you.’)

(Translation)

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) April 21, 1944

Garbage Trucks in the City in the Dawn Dusk

The cleaning service performed by the Palpan-dong Youth Volunteer Corps members

Practice is better than theory. The Seoul Palpan-dong Youth Volunteer Corps, which had set out to take the initiative before ordering others to do so, began a cleanup campaign on April 11 in an effort to initially start work in a familiar location.

This was to sweep the area of garbage and provide sanitation in the spring, and also to raise the health awareness of the residents at the same time. The corp members on duty gathered at 5 a.m. every morning at the Palpan-dong town council office. Under the command of Corps representative Hatani and under the orders of Captain Shigeyama, the Corps members silently worked breaking a sweat for two hours at a time to pump out the latrines and carry away the garbage before the townspeople even got up, and by 7:00 a.m. they were lined up in front of the town council office.

They sang the Oath of the Youth Volunteer Corps. They strive to improve their minds and bodies as they each go about their work. [Photo: The early morning cleanup of the Youth Volunteer Corps members]

Home Gardening: How to Make Fertilizer

The shortcut to increase crop production is to double the amount of fertilizer, rather than to double the amount of land. Fertilizer is very important as a foodstuff for the crops, so let’s treat our crops with homemade fertilizer. Fertilizers are the most important thing for growing vegetables, and they should be applied as a starter fertilizer at a rate of about 1 kan (3.75 kg) for every tsubo (3.3 square meters) of land.

Dig a hole at least two shaku (about 61 cm or 2 feet) in depth, and throw in some dust, hay, straw, fallen leaves, horse manure, and anything else that will decompose. When you reach a thickness of 5 or 6 sun (15.1 cm or 18.2 cm), step on the mixture to make it more compact, and then sprinkle human feces, urine, and latrine juice over it. Then cover the human feces, urine, and latrine juice with about 2 sun (6 cm) of soil. Repeat this process every three weeks, alternating the top-bottom order of the layers each time [debris on the bottom and human feces on top the first time, debris on top and human feces on the bottom the second time, etc.]. Cover the hole with a lid to prevent rainwater from entering. When the hole is full, leave the lid on for two to three months to complete the process.

It is essential to let it fully decompose, otherwise it can cause more harm than good. Before applying it to the field, expose it to direct sunlight for three or four days, and crush it well before use.

Human feces and urine also have rapid efficacy as an additional fertilizer to use after seeding. Place a bucket or tub in the soil, avoiding direct sunlight and rain. Stir the human feces and urine into the bucket or tub, let it stand for three or four weeks, and when it has sufficiently decomposed, apply a dilution of three to six times the original amount of the human feces and urine. When using this method, dig a shallow pit to one side of the crop, apply the fertilizer, and always cover it with soil.

Source: https://www.archive.org/details/kjnp-1944-04-21

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) April 26, 1944

Measures to secure fertilizers and animal feed; Details regarding the Agricultural Promotion Association’s stated policy (part 2)

Start by converting waste materials into animal feed

Unfolding a campaign to increase self-supplied fertilizer production

III. Measures to secure self-supplied fertilizer production

In order to complete the agricultural production responsibility system imposed on Korean farming villages, it is necessary to increase the amount of fertilizers. However, since the situation is such that it is not possible to depend solely on chemical fertilizers, we must of course make every effort to increase the amount of self-supplied fertilizers.

However, since the increase of self-supplied fertilizers requires a great deal of effort, we shall put the following into practice on the premise that the increase of self-supplied fertilizers requires the determination of the government based on the major policy of rural reorganization.

(1) Movement to increase the production of self-supplied fertilizers

In order to liquidate the ‘chemical fertilizers are all-powerful’ mentality and to push forward with the improvement and increase of self-supplied fertilizers, first of all, to encourage the activities of guidance and encouragement organizations and agricultural groups to develop a spiritual movement among farmers, and, of course, to start a movement to increase self-supplied fertilizer production as a national movement by rallying the Korean Federation of National Power.

(2) Rural Labor Mobilization

Not only men, but also women and school children, shall be mobilized to work a certain number of hours every day for a certain period of time to increase the production of self-supplied fertilizers, and a work week shall be established. In this mobilization, not only farmers, but also non-farmers in general, shall share in the labor.

(3) Implementation of a system of responsibility for increased production of self-supplied fertilizers

(A) A system of responsibility for increasing the production of self-supplied fertilizers by village

The target for increasing self-supplied fertilizer production by each farmer shall be set according to the amount of fertilizer required per unit of each major crop and per unit of production in accordance with local conditions, and each village shall be responsible for increasing its own respective self-supplied fertilizer production in the spring, summer, fall and winter, without missing the timings of production in each season.

(B) Reward system for increased production of self-supplied fertilizers

Farmers who reach the target of increased production of self-supplied fertilizer shall be rewarded by means of a certificate of passed inspection and special distribution of essential supplies. Landowners shall also be rewarded in an appropriate manner.

(4) Strengthening of guidance and encouragement from government agencies

(A) The Governor-General’s Office is to expound the major policy of increasing the production of self-supplied fertilizers and mobilize all relevant authorities to strengthen guidance and encouragement for farmers.

(B) The following guidance shall be given with emphasis.

(1) Increase the production of field compost, quick compost, and wheat straw compost.

(2) Increasing the use of wild green grass.

(3) Construction or improvement of compost sheds, barns, ash houses, manure pits, and simple silos.

(4) Conversion of rice bran, fallen debris, rice culm, stems and leaves of second crops, and sweet tea vines into animal feed.

(5) Intercropping of fodder crops and utilization of vacant land.

(6) Encourage and subsidize the adoption of green manure cultivation.

(7) Utilization of muddy soil in irrigation and drainage canals and ponds, etc.

(8) Collection of ashes from burnt waste grasses and trees in the urban areas and towns.

(5) Thorough promotion of green manure cultivation

(A) Strengthening the encouragement of increased production of self-supplied fertilizers through workshops on self-supplied fertilizers, product fairs, and awards for distinguished service.

(B) Strengthen subsidies for facilities to increase the production of self-supplied fertilizers.

(C) The Governor-General’s Office shall increase the expenses required for the implementation of the above two items.

(6) Parallel facilities

(A) For the purpose of eliminating the adverse effects of the cost of burning rice culms as fuel in order to secure compost resources, the conversion to unhulled grain briquettes, etc., and the improvement of fuel holes of ondol heaters shall be promoted and encouraged.

(B) Convert thatched rice straw into wheat straw to increase the use of rice straw as fertilizer and fodder.

(C) In order to return the by-products of grain processing to the farming communities, the Foodstuff Brigade, which is the controlling body for grain processing, shall increase the production of feed by crushing the rice, wheat, bran, straw, and other materials produced at the factories to make rough animal feed.

(D) To develop a cooperative movement among the people of the urban areas and towns to ensure that the waste of the urban areas and towns is converted into feed and fertilizer through rational processing of the waste of the urban areas and towns.

(7) Specific measures to increase manure production in stables

(A) Each farmer shall be required to install a composting shed, a storage area, or a manure pile, and to make use of the old facilities.

(B) Have each farmer learn that “without livestock, there is no fertilizer” and raise livestock appropriate to the local conditions.

(C) The farmers are required to do the “one chige” exercise before breakfast and to clean up their yards and villages every morning to obtain resources for compost or fodder, such as wild grass and dust.

(D) Extend the mowing emphasis period, and constantly cut wild grass for fodder, bedding straw, and compost materials.

(E) Open common wells in the vicinity of the village to facilitate composting, especially wells for field composting.

(F) Agricultural wastes, straw culms, and leaves and stems of other crops shall be made into feed for livestock and returned to arable land. In particular, straw culms shall be saved as fuel or roofing, and about one-third of the production shall be used as raw material for stable manure.

(G) To increase the amount of fodder by promoting the use of simple silos.

(8) Utilization of human feces and urine

(A) Farmers’ latrines and barns shall be improved, and manure pits shall be installed so that there will be no regrets in the use of human feces and urine and livestock manure and urine.

(B) To promote transportation, relay facilities, and equipment maintenance to facilitate the use of human feces and urine from urban areas and towns.

(C) In particular, vegetable growers in the outlying areas of the urban areas and towns shall be encouraged to organize associations and cooperate with the authorities to make use of human feces and urine from the urban areas and towns.

(D) Conventional ash production shall be discontinued.

(9) Thoroughly promote the cultivation of green manure.

(A) In order to secure seeds, special distribution of chemical fertilizer shall be made to seed growers, and an increase in the price of green manure seeds shall be made.

(B) Mobilize women and school children to supplement labor for seed collection.

(C) Establish cultivation plans for each region according to the following goals for green manure types, and ensure that they are thoroughly disseminated.

• Southern Korea: Mainly the ‘Renge’ and ‘Becchi’ brands of green manure
• Central Korea: Mainly the ‘Becchi’ brand of green manure
• Northwest Korea: Mainly the ‘Becchi’ brand of green manure

(D) In areas where green manure can be grown as a second crop, it shall be cultivated to the extent of up to 30% of the rice paddy area.

(E) In mountainous areas, wild grasses and sprouts shall be collected and used as natural green manure.

IV. Subsidies for fertilizers

1. To grant the Korean Agricultural Promotion Association Prize to three places per province among the counties and townships for their excellent performance in increasing fertilizer production.

2. To receive subsidies from the Korean Agricultural Promotion Association for provinces that plan to engage in the green manure seed production business.

I. Measures to Ensure Increased Fodder Production

(1) Measures to be taken by farmers to increase feed production

Thoroughly ensure self-sufficiency in animal feed

The basic policy of farmers shall be to be self-sufficient in feedstuffs, and farmers shall be encouraged year-round to be self-aware and self-reliant in their work ethic and ingenuity.

(2) Estimate the production amount of feed to encourage for each animal feed farmer, (a) secure cereals for feed (b) increase the production of quality hay (c) secure agricultural products such as culms and crop residues (d) collect agricultural crop stems and leaves (e) timely harvesting of tree canopy species (f) utilization of silkworm sand and mulberry leaves (g) preparation of buried grass and coal straw (h) cultivation of fodder crops on unused and fallow lands (i) dual use of organic fertilizers and other methods of increasing self-sufficiency in fodder production, to be implemented in accordance with local conditions, and to be secured as necessary.

II. Feed measures for livestock requiring controlled distribution of feed

(1) Securing the supply of rough animal feed: Measures shall be taken to ensure an adequate supply of rough animal feed such as hay and rice straw as basic feed.

(2) Production and utilization of powdered feed: Positively encourage the production of powdered feed such as apples, manure, coal straw, fish waste, etc., and make efforts to utilize them as a substitute for concentrate feed.

(3) Securing supplies of concentrate feed: Increase the supply of grains, soybean meal and bran, and prioritize the use of brewing sediment, starch sediment and other residues left over from production as animal feed to ensure a minimum annual supply of 250,000 tons.

(4) Increase production and supply of formula feed: Increase the production capacity of Korean Livestock Products Co., Ltd. to supply the most necessary concentrated feed as a rational and economical formula feed for each type of livestock.

III. Measures to be adopted in particular in terms of feed

(1) Develop a campaign to increase self-sufficient feed production

In order to increase the production of self-sufficient fodder such as hay, wheat stalks, tree leaves, coal straw, buried grass, and other powdered feeds, a national campaign shall be launched throughout Korea to encourage farmers and strengthen the work of school children, elderly women, adult women, and little girls in particular, so that this can be accomplished.

(2) Holding of a competition to increase feed production

To hold a competition under the auspices of the Korean Agricultural Promotion Association to promote the development of new feed resources in line with the development of the above movement, and to contribute to its wide dissemination to the general public.

(3) Securing the supply of minor grains for feed

From the next rice production year onward, when establishing the food grain demand plan, the necessary amount of minor grains for feed shall be recorded and secured in a systematic manner.

Allow ranchers, dairy farmers, stallion breeders, military-qualified horse breeders, etc. to cultivate the necessary animal feed.

(4) Crack down on unauthorized movement of feed and unauthorized products shall be strengthened.

(5) Actively subsidize feed facilities.

(6) Expand and strengthen the feed administration system and improve the distribution system.

(7) To expand and strengthen research and study facilities related to animal feed at agricultural experiment stations.

Source: https://www.archive.org/details/kjnp-1944-04-26

(My Notes)

This article mentions a ‘one chige‘ exercise that farmers were required to do before breakfast. Chige means ‘bowl in Korean, but it’s not clear to me whether this refers to their breakfast, or the container that they use to collect grass and dust for compost.

In the following transcription, I encountered about six characters which I could not read despite my best efforts, so I placed a question mark as a place holder, until I could access a more legible copy of this article in the future, perhaps from the National Library of Korea. 

(Transcription)

京城日報　1944年4月21日

暁闇の街をゆく塵芥車

八判町青年隊員らの清掃奉仕

理屈より実践。他人に命ずる前に率先挺身だと起ちあがった府内八判町青年挺身隊では先ず身近かなところから仕事をしようと十一日から清掃運動を始めた。

これは春に入り町内から塵芥を一掃し衛生を備える一方、町民の保健観念を昂めようというもので、勤人である隊員は毎朝午前五時に町会事務所に集合。羽渓総代の指揮と茂山隊長の命で町内の人が起きあがらない前から黙黙として便所の汲み取りから塵芥の運び出しに二時間づつ汗を流し、七時には町会事務所前に整列。

青年挺身隊の誓いを斉唱。心身の練磨に努め各自の勤務にいそしんでいる【写真＝青挺身員の早朝清掃】

家庭園芸：肥料の作り方

畑地を二倍に拡げるより、肥料を倍に施した方が増産の近道です。肥料は作物の食糧で是非必要なものですから、自家製で御馳走してやりましょう。菜には最も必要な肥料で、坪一貫内外の割で元肥として与えます。

作り方は地を深さ二尺以上に掘り、その中に塵芥、乾草、藁、落葉に馬糞その他何でも腐るものを投入し、五六寸の厚さになったとき、踏み固めて人糞尿や便汁をふりかけ、土を二寸位おくのを繰り返します。穴には雨水の入らぬよう、ふたをしておきます。三週間に一度上下をかえるように切り替え、穴が一ぱいになったら、蓋をしたまま二三ヶ月おきますと出来上がります。

十分に腐敗さすことが肝腎で、不熟のものはかえって害を与えます。畑に与える前には三、四日直射に広げて当て、よくくだいてから使います。

つぎに下肥（人糞尿）は追肥として速効のあるものです。かめまたは桶を土中にうずめ、直射と雨をさけます。この中に糞尿をかきまぜてくみとり、三、四週間放置し、十分に腐ったものを三倍～六倍にうすめて施します。その方法は作物の一方を浅く掘って追肥し、かならず土をかけておくことです。

京城日報　1944年4月26日

肥料・飼料の確保策　興農会献策の内容　（下）

先ず廃物の飼料化

自給肥増産運動を展開

三、自給肥料対策

現下朝鮮農村に負荷せられたる農業生産責任制の完遂の為には肥料の増施最も必要なるが、単に之を金肥にのみに依存する能わざる情勢に在るを以て当然自給肥料の増製に全力を注がざる可からず。

然れ共之が増製は鮮からざる努力を傾倒する要するを以て、此の際自給肥料の増製をば農村再編成の大方針に基き政府の決意を必要とすることを前提とし、左の事項を実践に移さんとす。

（一）自給肥料大増産運動

金肥万能思想を清算し、自給肥料の改良増産の一途に邁進せしむべく、先ず農民の精神運動を展開するため指導奨励機関及び農業団体の活動を促すは勿論、総力聯盟の奮起により国民運動として自給肥料大増産運動を起こすこと

（二）農村勤労総動員

男子は勿論、婦人学童等を総動員し、自給肥料増産のため或る期間毎日一定時間勤労せしむる外、勤労週間を定設し、実効を揚ぐるに努むること本動員に当りては単に農民のみならず、一般非農家に於いてもその労苦を共にすること

（三）自給肥料増産責任制実施

（イ）部落別自給肥料増産責任制

地方の実情に応じ各主要作物別反当所要量及び作付反別より各農家の自給肥料増産目標を定め、部落を単位とし春夏秋冬の各季節別に時期を失することなく夫々自給肥料増産の責任を負わしむること

（ロ）自給肥料増産褒賞制

自給肥料増産目標に到達したる農家に対しては検査合格証を交付すると共に必需物資特配等の方法を以て褒賞すること。尚地主に在りても適当の褒賞の方法を講ずること。

（四）官庁指導奨励の強化

（イ）本府は自給肥料増産の大方針を闡明し、各指導関係当局を総動員して農民に対する指導奨励の強化を図ること。

（ロ）左記に付き重点指導を行うこと。

（１）野積堆肥、速成堆肥、麥稈堆肥の増製。

（２）山野緑草の増施。

（３）堆肥舎、畜舎及び灰小屋、糞尿溜、簡易『サイロー』の構築又は改良。

（４）糠類、落物、粥稈類及び裏作物の茎葉並びに甘茶蔓の飼料化。

（５）飼料作物の間作栽培及び空地利用。

（６）緑肥栽培の徹底的奨励及び採択助成。

（７）用排水路池沼等の泥土利用。

（８）都邑地区芥草木灰の蒐集。

（五）緑肥栽培の普及徹底

（イ）自給肥料講習会、品評会、有功者の表彰等の自給肥料増産奨励の強化を図ること。

（ロ）自給肥料増産施設に対する助成の強化を図ること。

（ハ）本府は前二項実施に要する経費を増強すること。

（六）並行施設

（イ）堆肥資源確保の為燃料として粥稈燃費の弊を除く目的を以て籾穀練炭等への転換、温突焚口の改良を普及奨励せしむること。

（ロ）屋根葺稲藁を？、麥稈に転換せしめ稲藁の肥料、飼料還元を増強すること。

（ハ）糧穀加工の副産物を農村に還元する為、糧穀加工統制機関たる食糧営団に於いて工場生産の米麥糠落物の外稿、縄屑、？叺に至るまで之を粉砕し粗飼料を作る等飼料の増産を図ること。

（ニ）都邑廃物の合理的処理による塵芥の飼料化、塵芥の肥料化を徹底せしむる為、都邑民の協力運動を展開すること。

（七）厩堆肥増産の具体的方策

（イ）各農家をして必ず堆肥舎又は堆積場、肥溜を設置せしむると共に旧設備を活用せしむること。

（ロ）各農家をして『家畜なければ肥料なし』を会得せしめ地方の実情に応じ適当なる家畜を飼育せしむること。

（ハ）朝食前の一チゲ運動、毎朝の庭先及び部落内清掃を必行せしめ野草及び塵芥等堆肥又は飼料の資源を獲得せしむること。

（ニ）草刈り強調期間を延長すると共に飼料、敷きワラ、堆肥原料としての野草刈り取りを常時行わしむること。

（ホ）堆肥造成を容易ならしむる為部落周辺に共同井戸を、特に野積堆肥の為の井戸を開鑿せしむること。

（ヘ）農産屑物、藁稈、？類の茎葉等は力めて之を家畜の飼料となし、耕地に還元せしむること。特に藁稈類の燃料又は屋根葺とすることを節約せしめ、生産量の三分の一程度を厩堆肥の原料とせしむること。

（ト）簡易『サイロー』の普及により飼料の増強を図ること。

（八）糞尿の利用

（イ）農家便所及び畜舎を改良せしむると共に肥溜を設備せしめ人糞尿及び家畜糞尿の利用に遺憾なからしむること。

（ロ）都邑糞尿の利用を容易ならしむる為の運搬、中継設備及び器具整備を助長すること。

（ハ）特に都邑近郊の蔬菜栽培者には組合を組織せしめ当局と強調し都邑糞尿を利用せしむること。

（ニ）従来の？灰の製造は之を見合しむること。

（九）緑肥栽培の普及徹底

（イ）種子を確保するため採種者に金肥を特配し、緑肥種子の価格引き上げを断行すること

（ロ）採種労力補充のため婦人、学童を動員すること

（ハ）緑肥の種類を左の目標により、地方別に栽培計画を樹立せしめ、之が普及徹底を期すること

• 南鮮：主として紫雲英、ベッチ
• 中鮮：主としてベッチ
• 西北鮮：主としてベッチ

（ニ）緑肥の裏作可能地帯に於いては水田面積の三割程度迄栽培せしむること

（ホ）山間部に於いては野草、萌芽等を採集せしめ天然緑肥として利用せしむること

四、肥料に対する助成

一、堆肥増産の成績優良なる郡面、部落に対し財団法人朝鮮興農会賞を一道に付き三ヶ所宛交付せられたきこと

二、緑肥採種事業を計画せる道に対し財団法人朝鮮興農会より助成金を交付せられたきこと

飼料増産確保策

一、農家に於ける飼料対策

（１）飼料自給自足趣旨の徹底

農家に於ける所要飼料は自給を根本方針とし農民の勤労精神の昂揚並びに創意工夫を強調し之が自覚と年間所促すこと

飼料励行を（２）各飼蓄農家等に要領を推算し（イ）飼料用雑穀類の確保（ロ）優良乾草の増産（ハ）農産物の稿稈類、残渣物の確保（ニ）農作物茎葉？類の蒐集

（ホ）樹冠類の適期採種（ヘ）蚕沙、残桑の利用（ト）埋草及び石炭藁の調製

（チ）未利用地及び休閑地利用に依る飼料作物栽培（リ）有機肥料の二重利用等各種飼料自給増産方途を夫々地方の実情に応じ実行せしめ、これが確保を必期せしむること

二、飼料の統制配給を要する家畜に対する飼料対策

（１）粗飼料の供給確保：基礎飼料たる乾草、稲藁等の粗飼料を充分供給するよう措置すること

（２）粉末飼料の製造及び利用：苹檎類、稿稈類、石炭藁、魚屑等の粉末飼料製造を積極的に奨励し、濃厚飼料代用としてこれが利用に努むること

（３）濃厚飼料の供給確保：穀類、大豆粕、糠類の増給並びに醸造粕、澱粉粕等製造残渣の飼料優先利用を図り以て？当り最小限必需量年間二十五万頓の供給を確保せらるること

（４）配合飼料の増産供給：濃厚飼料は家畜の種別毎に合理的且つ経済的配合飼料として供給するを最も必要とするを以て朝鮮畜産株式会社の之が製造能力を拡充せしむること

三、飼料対策上特に採るべき施策

（１）自給飼料増産運動の展開

乾草、茎葉麥類、樹葉類、石炭藁、埋草、其の他粉末飼料等自給飼料増産達成の為、報国運動を全鮮に展開し、農民の奮起を促すと共に特に学童及び老幼婦女子の勤労を強化し以て之が必成を期すること

（２）飼料増産競励会の開催

右運動展開に伴い新飼料資源開発促進のため財団法人朝鮮興農会主催を以て之が競励会を開催し広く一般の普及に資すること

（３）飼料用雑穀類の供給確保

来米穀年度以降は食糧需給計画樹立に当り飼料用としての雑穀必需量を計上し計画的に之が確保を図らるること

尚各種牧場、酪農家、種馬、軍用適格馬飼育者等に対しては其の所要飼料の栽培方容認せらるること

（４）飼料の不正移動並びに不正品の取締を強化すること

（５）飼料対策施設につき積極的に助成を行うこと

（６）飼料行政機構の拡充強化を図り之が配給機構を整備すること

（７）農事試験場における飼料に関する調査研究施設の拡充強化を図ること