This is the only known bilingual Japanese-Korean wartime propaganda poster that Imperial Japan is known to have published on Keijo Nippo (October 7, 1944)

This rare Korean-Japanese bilingual wartime propaganda poster, published in Keijo Nippo (Gyeongseong Ilbo) on October 7, 1944, was extremely interesting, since it was the only bilingual propaganda poster that I could find in the Keijo Nippo newspaper, which was the official propaganda mouthpiece of the Imperial Japanese colonial regime which ruled Korea from 1905 to 1945. That is significant, since I've been browsing this newspaper and posting content from it for two years now, and this is the only bilingual poster that I've encountered so far.

Copy of the poster from the Internet Archive.

Copy of the poster from the National Library of Korea.

The copy of the poster from the Internet Archive was too faded to be decipherable, but the quality of the copy that I found at the National Library of Korea, which I visited last month, was marginally better, so I deciphered the Japanese part of the text with a relatively high level of confidence. Unfortunately, I still cannot figure out most of the Korean portion of the poster.

This bilingual poster was part of a recruitment drive to conscript more Koreans for military-related labor. This is the song on the poster in Japanese and Korean:

おうちょう（應徵）戦士
お父さん 萬歳
兄ちゃん 萬歳
うれしいな 白紙應召
大進撃 勝って下さい
送れ 送れ
がっちり しっかり
憎い米英 やっつける

응중전사
…
우리아버지 만세
우리형 만세
…

[Translation]
Conscription Soldier
Father, may you live long!
Elder brother, may you live long!
How joyful it is, White Paper Conscription!
Please win the great offensive!
Send them, send them!
Firmly, steadfastly,
Defeat the hated Britain and America!
[End of translation]

In Imperial Japan, there were different types of conscription orders differentiated by the color of the paper that they were printed on: red (赤紙, Akagami), white (白紙, Hakushi), blue (青紙, Aogami), and also pink paper (紅紙, Kōgami).

The White Paper conscription mentioned in this song was used for "educational conscription" and training-related activities, such as "教育召集" (educational conscription), "演習召集" (training mobilization), and "簡閲点呼" (roll-call inspection). Both the Army and Navy could issue white paper orders.

In practice, that probably meant that young students were mobilized for military-related labor, being shipped out to the factories of mainland Japan or to augment farm labor shortages, for example.

Red and pink papers were generally used for calling people into active military service, and blue papers were used for short-term homeland defense, particularly against events like air raids. The issuing of these orders was a way to manage the different needs and urgencies of military and homeland activities during the war period.

If you are fluent in Korean, I could really use your expertise and keen eyes to decipher the rest of the Korean text based on the two copies of the poster, the original Japanese text, and my English translation. The text is incredibly faded, to the point where even someone well-versed in the language might find it challenging to decipher. The odds of deciphering the Korean text might be long, but even some tentative guesses would be of immense help in reconstructing this extremely rare historical artifact.

More Reading about White Paper Conscription (in Japanese): https://adeac.jp/minato-city/texthtml/d110050/mp100010-110050/ht000750

Internet Archive Copy of Poster: https://archive.org/details/kjnp-1944-10-07/page/n2/mode/1up

Edit: Corrected 만새 to 만세

Japanese abductee escaped Korean Communist guerrillas in 1939 and told police about meeting Kim Il-sung and his comrades, many of whom were women

This is a short article from 1939 where a Japanese abductee escaped captivity from Korean Communist Guerrillas to tell the Japanese police in Ranam, Korea about meeting Kim Il-sung and his comrades, many of whom were women.

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo June 3, 1939

Astonished by Female Bandits

Kim Il-sung was a Gentleman

A Kidnap Victim Shares His Experience

[Telephone Report from Ranam] On the 22nd of last month, a person who had been kidnapped by bandits in the jurisdiction of the Samjang Police Station returned and spoke about the interesting inner workings of the bandits, based on his experiences of living with them deep in the mountains for over ten days.

One surprising thing was the presence of many female bandits among them, not just men as he had initially thought. These people are primarily ethnic Koreans from the Gando region and usually handle cooking and sewing for the bandits.

It was unique that they cook rice in a washbasin, but it was also surprising that they skillfully made Western clothes and combat hats using a proper hand-operated sewing machine. All of them uniformly expressed nostalgia for their homeland and said they wanted to return to Korea as soon as possible.

He met the leader who introduced himself as Kim Il-sung. Kim was a fair-skinned, good-looking man in his thirties, about 5 shaku and 5 or 6 sun tall (167 to 170 cm tall). He was bald, wore a combat hat, dressed in brown woolen clothes, and wore jika-tabi footwear.

[Transcription]

京城日報 1939年6月3日

女匪賊に吃驚

金日成とは、やさ男

被拉致者の見聞談

【羅南電話】去る二十二日三長警察署管内で匪賊に拉致されたものが帰ってきて密林の奥深く匪賊とともに暮らした十余日間の経験に基き興味ある彼等の内幕を次の如く語っている。

匪賊は男だけかと思ったらどうして驚いたことは、沢山の女匪賊がいることである。彼等は主に間島出身の鮮人でいつもは匪賊の炊事と針仕事をやっている。

洗面器で飯を焚いているのも珍しいが、立派な手ミシンをもっていて器用に洋服や戦闘帽などを作っているのも驚かされた。彼らは皆一様に国が懐かしい、早く朝鮮に帰りたいとこぼしていた。

自分は頭目の金日成だというのに逢ったが彼はまだ三十位の色の白い優男で身長は五尺五六寸、頭は丸坊主で戦闘帽を冠り、茶色の羅紗服をきて地下足袋を穿いていた。

Source: https://archive.org/details/kjnp-1939-06-03/page/n10/mode/1up

Copy of news article at the Internet Archive.

Note: I also photographed a copy of the article in the National Library of Korea. Since the newspaper copies from the Internet Archive and the National Library of Korea were different, comparing and contrasting the smudged and blurred newsprint in both copies helped me decipher the text.

Copy of news article photographed at the National Library of Korea.

Imperial Japan’s manhunt for the “Communist Bandit Kim Il-Sung” in the late 1930’s was sensationalized in news headlines all over Korea, capturing the imagination of the Korean public under colonial rule

Continuing my exploration of Korean colonial-era newspapers from the 1930s and 1940s, available on the Internet Archive since 2021, I stumbled upon a series of fascinating articles about Kim Il-sung, the future founder of North Korea. Given that many of these details differ significantly from publicly available biographies of Kim Il-sung, I thought this would be of interest to the community here.

It is crucial to understand that these articles were sourced from Gyeongseong Ilbo (also known as Keijo Nippo), the official newspaper of the Imperial Japanese colonial administration, which governed Korea from 1905 to 1945. Though the paper was a propaganda tool, it was also the most widely read newspaper in Korea at the time. Only around 15% of Koreans had the literacy to read the newspaper, but the information would likely have spread through word of mouth.

Here are the noteworthy differences:

1. Kim Il-sung allegedly went to the Soviet Union at age 19 (~1930) for university studies. In contrast, most sources claim he didn't go to the Soviet Union until 1940.
2. The place of Kim Il-sung's birth is listed as either South Hamgyong or North Pyongan, differing from most sources which point to South Pyongan.
3. There are varying accounts of his birth year: ~1901 according to a 1937 article, ~1911 according to the May 1939 article, and ~1909 according to the June 1939 article. Most sources agree he was born in 1912.
4. Kim Il-sung imposter theory: Kim Il-sung was allegedly killed in November 1937. The May 1939 article suggests that Kim Il-sung was killed in 1936, and someone named Kim Young-san may have assumed Kim Il-sung's identity then. However, the June 1939 article appears to downplay this theory. Most modern historians today do not entertain this theory.

I also noted some similarities in the news articles with prevailing North Korean narratives:

1. Both the articles and North Korean narratives agree that Mount Baekdu served as Kim Il-sung's base for anti-Japanese activities during the 1930s.
2. The articles corroborate North Korean claims that Kim Il-sung's father, Kim Hyong-jik, was involved in the independence movement and was executed for it.

The copy of the June 1939 article from the Internet Archive was largely illegible, but I was able to decipher sections discussing Kim Il-sung and O Paek-ryong, a future high-ranking general of North Korea. O Paek-ryong (오백룡, 呉白龍) is depicted as defiant towards colonial authorities, even demanding they pay taxes to him instead of the other way around.

Here is what I could understand from the faded text: A colonial official was said to have sent a letter to O Paek-ryong asking him to pay his taxes (いい加減にもう年貢を収めたらどうか？). In response, O Paek-ryong sent back a letter asking them to pay taxes to him instead, and that they were a pathetic bunch of people whose days were numbered (お前達こそいい加減にもう年貢を収めたらどうか？余命幾許も無いお前達は実に哀れなものだ). Between May 20, 1939 and June 16, 1939, the bandits made incursions into Korea at four locations and had 11 skirmishes with colonial security forces. 2-3 days prior to June 16, 1939, they also assaulted a bus and killed 3 ethnic Japanese people, stole some gold items, and set fire to the bus with gasoline.

I am planning a visit to the National Library of Korea later this month to examine physical copies of Keijo Nippo and satiate my curiosity about the late 1944 to 1945 issues. However, if there is community interest in the 1939 mentions of Kim Il-sung and his comrades, I will certainly prioritize that during my upcoming trip.

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) November 18, 1937

The suffering of the residents along the Korean-Manchurian border is now resolved: Communist Bandit Kim Il-Sung's Death

Statement by the Korean Army Office on November 17th - Kim Il-sung has long been residing on the opposite bank of the Yalu River in Changbai and Fusong Counties. Under the incitement of the Comintern, he has been advocating communism to the local residents and making efforts to cultivate anti-Manchukuo and anti-Japanese sentiments. At times, he has carried out slaughter and pillage, causing suffering to innocent people. Sometimes, he hatches treacherous plans against the Japanese-Manchurian forces, thereby significantly threatening the public order in Manchukuo. According to sources, on November 13th, a Manchurian anti-bandit squad confirmed Kim Il-sung's location, attacked him, and after five hours of fierce fighting, finally beheaded him, singing a song of triumph.

If this is indeed true, not only the residents who have long suffered under his oppression will rejoice, but the Korean Army authorities, who have a great concern for public order along the Korean-Manchurian border, will be filled with indescribable joy. Respect is expressed for the hard work and effort of the Manchurian anti-bandit squad.

Father and Son Across Two Generations of Treachery: The Mastermind of the Attack on Pochonbo

Is he a hero of the verdant woods? Who was Kim Il-sung, who traversed the eastern borderlands? He was said to be born in South Hamgyong or, according to some theories, in South Pyeongan. According to the investigation of the border police, the South Hamgyong theory is more credible, and beyond that, his origins are unclear — a fitting background for a bandit. From a young age, Kim Il-sung crossed the border with his father, based himself in the eastern borderlands, started a revolutionary movement, and became its leader. As the revolutionary movement expanded across the river, red devils appeared behind the scenes, inciting them with communist thought.

Tainted red, at around the age of 19, Kim Il-sung snuck into Moscow, the Mecca of the People's Front. He spent ten months in Russia, where he studied at a communist university, and furthermore joined the Red Army, becoming a practitioner of anti-Japanese activities. As soon as the Manchurian Incident broke out, he returned immediately to the eastern border, joined forces with bandit groups led by leaders such as Wang Fengge (王鳳閣) and Cao Guo'an (曹国安), and started an anti-Manchurian and anti-Japanese army, disrupting the border. Kim Il-sung, the only intellectual among the bandits, rapidly rose to become the leader of his comrades, and he stubbornly continued anti-Manchurian activities for about six years. The name "Communist Bandit Kim Il-sung" echoed throughout Manchukuo, often troubling the anti-bandit squads. Notably this spring, he attacked Pochonbo on the second line of the South Hamgyong border, resulting in several casualties among the brave Hyesan Police who were staunchly defending the border.

Kim Il-sung, who continued anti-Japanese and anti-Manchurian activities for two generations with his father, was finally cornered by the brave anti-bandit squad, and at the age of 36, his life of turbulence came to a close, putting an end to his evil dreams.

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) May 28, 1939

Bandit Tales: Child of Destiny, Kim Il-Sung

A Focus on Recent Guerrilla Tactics

**Foreword**

When we hear that bandits have appeared in North Hamgyong, those unfamiliar with the situation immediately seem to think that these bandits are operating in the hills behind Chongjin, but it is by no means a laughing matter. There was a time when a large bandit raid occurred deep in Musan and was reported in bold headlines in the newspapers. As a result, we received letters of sympathy all the way from mainland Japan. Several years have passed since then, but bandits have once again invaded the border of North Hamgyong by circling around Baekdu Mountain from the South Hamgyong border area. They have clashed with the security forces for several days. Chief of Police Tsui recently stated, "Since people unfamiliar with local conditions may think that the bandits have invaded areas like Chongjin or Rason, I want things to be clearly reported to avoid misunderstandings. I do not think it is good to give the general impression that North Hamgyong is an unsafe place in terms of public order, as this would not be conducive to the progress of North Hamgyong." Apparently, the general public perception about the "bandits of North Hamgyong" is inadequate.

Generally speaking, it is regrettable that there is even temporary bandit activity around the Korea-Manchuria border, which is lauded as the "royal road to paradise." At a time when the whole country is working to construct a New Asia, and the glorious song of the advance army of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere is playing loudly, when viewed from the grand scheme of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, the issues in that region, which is but a small corner, may seem trivial like so many insignificant orchids, but they are not without problems. However, we must say that the repeated occurrence of these ill-fated incidents disrupting public order in this small corner of our continental forward base is a serious matter. But when all is said and done, this represents the last gasp of breath for these bandits whose days are numbered on the land of Chongjin.

Now then, what is the current situation of these bandits who are disruptors of the peace in the Korean-Manchurian region, and who are detestable enemies of culture? What is their lineage? Organization? Strongholds? Recent activities? Let us attempt to explain these various issues a little. (North Hamgyong News Bureau)

**Structure and Organization**

While we do not have detailed information about the structure and organization of these bandits, they are generally part of the Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army. Below that are the First to Fourth Route Armies, which have First to Sixth Armies under them. Each army further divides into divisions and regiments. Today's bandits are by no means a rabble. They have a proper military organization and display considerable discipline, training, equipment, and coordination. The bandits that are active in the dense forests across from North and South Hamgyong are primarily under Yang Jingyu (楊靖宇) and include a faction led by Kim Il-sung. Yang Jingyu, a Manchu, is a formidable character who holds a military commander's position. Yang Jingyu has made Tonghua, Jilin, Huanan, Ning'an, and Dunhua among others his strongholds, and has single-handedly controlled northeastern Manchuria. He himself has become the commander of his First Army, appointed An Guangxun (安光薫) as the political leader and Kim Se-Hyung (김세형, 金世衡) as the chief of staff. Leading from the First Division to the Sixth Division, he reigns supreme, acting like a king of the verdant woods with great aplomb.

Kim Il-sung, who attacked Pochonbo in South Hamgyong last year and committed murder using every possible means, is currently waging combat against our suppression squad after invading North Hamgyong from the South Hamgyong border area again today. Kim Il-sung is Yang's trusted subordinate and heads the Sixth Division. He is just 28 years old. Kim Il-sung has an extremely violent nature, and he is very familiar with the conditions within Korea due to his numerous raids. He is disrupting public order by appearing and disappearing as if he were at home in the dense forests of Baekdu Mountain. Born on the Korean Peninsula in Gapsan, South Hamgyong, his father was a leader of the Manse Demonstration and was executed. He is thus a child of destiny. His nationalist ideology was inherited from his parents. He was raised by his uncle after moving to the eastern borderlands at a young age. His inherently violent nature eventually led him to join the group of bandits, and he is now on the path to his own destruction, chasing an unending illusory dream. Such has been the strange course of his life thus far.

There are some reports suggesting that Kim Il-sung was shot and killed by Manchurian troops in Huadian County in November 1936, and so a Korean named Kim Young-san (김영산, 金永山) succeeded him as the second Kim Il-sung, but the details are not clear. Yang Jingyu has also organized a so-called Second Front Army to disrupt the Korea-Manchuria border. Its command structure includes Yang Jingyu as commander, Kim Il-sung as the direct army chief, and Lin Shuishan (林水山) as chief of staff. They have under them the 7th to 10th regiments, as well as other guerrilla units, amounting to about 700 men in total.

These organized groups maintain consistent organic contact, and it goes without saying that the Comintern is manipulating them behind the scenes. A recent trend worth noting is their astonishing shift towards communism. They now refrain from unnecessary killings and brutality, and have shifted towards a trend of ideologically appealing to good citizens in order to win them over. (To be continued)

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) June 16, 1939

Patrolling the Anti-Bandit Frontlines

Report from North Hamgyong News Bureau (2)

The Legendary Kim Il-Sung: Certainly an Aura of Tension Among the Three Leaders

[...] That night, under the kerosene lamp of the Eiya Inn, the conversation became lively when discussing the topic of bandits. Because we were actually on the ground where it all happened, the stories that we heard were accompanied by a sobering sense of reality (the speakers were Police Chief Tsutsui, Senior Section Chief Miwa, and the journalists).

"Who exactly is this man called Kim Il-sung? According to one theory, he has not actually existed as a real person ever since he was killed by the security forces in the eastern borderlands last year..."

"No, he is indeed a real person. Just a few years ago, a newspaper reporter visited his base and met him. Although he did not appear in any photos, the article 'Meeting Kim Il-sung' was published in a newspaper and caused quite a sensation."

"That might have been a bit hard to believe. However, he undoubtedly exists as a real person. It was said that he is from Gapsan in South Hamgyong, but actually, he is apparently from North Pyeongan. In his childhood, his father was executed due to his participation in the Manse Demonstration. After that, he took up his father's mantle, ran into nationalist movements, and became a bandit. He is a somewhat pitiful child of destiny. However, he is only about thirty years old and holds a position equivalent to a division commander among the bandits, so he is certainly an extraordinary person."

"The next guest coming here is said to be the boss of this Kim Il-sung, a man named O Paek-ryong (오백룡, 呉白龍). O Paek-ryong is said to be located around [illegible] now. How about it, would anyone have the courage to go and write an article like 'Meeting O Paek-ryong'? It would certainly be a big scoop these days."

[...]

[Transcription]

京城日報 1937年11月18日

鮮満国境住民の苦悩今や解消：共産匪金日成の死

朝鮮軍当局談＝十七日朝鮮軍当局談＝金日成匪は予て鴨緑対岸長白、撫松県に蟠居しコンミンテルンの使嗾の下に所在の住民に対し共産主義を鼓吹し反満抗日的機運の醸成に努め或いは殺戮掠奪の限りを尽くして無辜の民を苦しめ、時としては日満軍に対して不逞を策するので満州国の治安を著しく脅威しありしか、情報によれば去る十三日満軍討匪隊は金日成の所在を確かめ、之を攻撃し激戦五時間の後、遂にその首級をあげ凱歌を奏したり。

果して然らば久しく彼らの桎桔下に苦悩せし住民の喜びは元より、鮮満国境の治安に大なる関心を有する朝鮮軍当局の喜びに堪えざる所にして満州討匪隊の苦心と努力に対し敬意を表する次第である。

父子二代の不逞：普天堡襲撃の張本

緑林の英雄？として東辺道を股にかけた金日成とはどんな男か。彼の生れは咸南と云い、或いは平南出身との説があり、国境警察官の調べによると咸南説が有力で、それ以上は判明しないと云う匪賊らしい生立ちである。金日成は幼時、父につれられ越境し、東辺道を根拠とし、〇〇革命運動を起こし、金日成はその首領となっていた〇〇運動が対岸に拡大するにつれて赤色魔が彼らの背後に現れ共産思想を煽りたてた。

赤色に染まった金日成は十九歳ころ人民戦線のメッカ、モスコーに潜入。在露十ヶ月、この間に共産大学に学び、更に赤衛軍に入隊。反日運動の実践者となった。満州事変勃発するや直ぐに東辺道に帰り、王鳳閣、曹国安等の匪賊団と聯合し、ここに反満抗日軍を起こし国境線を荒し廻っていた。緑林唯一のインテリ金日成の勢力は忽ち仲間の首魁に押され約六ヶ年に亘って、頑強に反満運動を続け『共匪金日成』の名は全満州に響き亘り討伐隊をしばしば困らせ、殊に今春、咸南の国境は第二線普天堡を襲撃し、これがため勇敢に国境線を死守した恵山鎮署員にも数名の犠牲者を出した程であった。

父子二代に亘って抗日反満を続けた金日成も勇敢な討伐隊に追い詰められ、遂に三十六歳を一期に悪の夢を清算、波瀾ある生涯の幕をとじた。

京城日報 1939年5月28日

匪賊物語：宿命の子、金日成

注目すべき最近の薪戦術

まえがき

咸北に匪賊が出た、というと事情を知らぬ人は直ぐ、清津の裏山にでもやって来てボシボシやっているように思うらしいが、決して笑い話ではない。嘗つて茂山のずっと奥地で大がかりな匪襲事件があって新聞にデカデカと報道された時には遠く内地方面から清津に見舞状がやって来たものだという。それから幾年、匪賊は最近又しても咸南国境方面から白頭山岳を迂回して咸北国境に侵入し、警備隊とここ数日前来、衝突交戦しているが、筒井警察部長はこの前、『内地の事情を知らぬ人達はまた清津、羅南附近にでも侵入したかの如く考えるかも知れないから、この点誤解のないように報道して貰いたい。咸北はどうも治安上面白くない所だ、というような印象を一般に与えることは躍進咸北の為によろしくないと思うから』と語っていたが、事程さように『咸北の匪賊』というものに対する一般の認識は足りないのである。

だいたい王道楽土を謳歌している日（鮮）満国境あたりに、かりそめにも匪賊の蠢動があるなどということは残念なことである。今、国を挙げて新亜細亜の建設に奮いたち、東亜大陸に華々しい興亜の進軍隊が高らかに奏でられている時、興亜の大局から見て猫額大の一角に過ぎないあの地域に出没する数々たる雛蘭の如き凡そ問題ではないが、しかし我が大陸前進基地たる領土の一角の治安を紊るこの種の不祥事件が繰り返されるということは由々しき大事であるといわねばならない。しかしそれは所詮、余命幾許もない彼等にとって清津の地の最後のあがきであるが。

さて、この鮮満治安の攪乱者であり憎むべき文化の敵である匪賊の現勢はどうか。系統は。組織は。根城は。最近の出没状況は。等々の問題について少し解説を試みよう。（咸北支局生）

系統と組織

彼等匪賊の系統、組織は詳かではないが、大体、東北抗日連合軍を根幹としてその下に第一路軍から第四路軍があり、その下に第一軍から第六軍があって、又その下に師団、その下が団、連に分れている。匪賊と雖も今日の匪賊は決して烏合の衆ではない。以上のように立派に軍隊式な編成を有し規律、訓練、装備、連絡などに侮り難いものがある。咸南北対岸の密林地帯を根城にして躍動する賊は主として楊靖宇匪の配下で金日成の一味であると見てよい。この楊靖宇という奴は満人だが相当の強か者で第一路の軍総司令、謂わば軍司令官格である。楊靖宇は通化、吉林、樺南、寧安、敦化等を根城に東北満を一手にその手中におさめ、自らその第一軍の軍長となり政主に安光薫を、参謀長に金世衡を配し、第一師から第六師を率いて天晴れ緑林の王者気取りで君臨している。

昨年咸南の普天堡を襲って凶殺の限りを尽くし、今日又咸南国境方面から咸北に侵入して我が討伐隊と交戦中の金日成匪の頭目。金日成はこの楊靖宇の懐刀で第六師長（師団長格）、まだ二十八の青年である。彼は非常に凶暴な性格をもち、前後数十回に亘る襲撃事件によって鮮内の状況に精通し、白頭山岳のあの密林の中を恰も我家の如く出没しては治安を攪乱しているのである。それに彼はもともと半島人であり咸南甲山の生まれで、その父は過ぐる万歳騒ぎ事件の巨魁で死刑となった。いわば彼は生まれながらにして宿命の子であった。彼の民族主義イデオロギーは先天的な親譲りのものである。幼少の許にして東辺道に渡り、叔父の許に育ったが生来の凶暴性は遂に嘗つて匪賊の群に投ぜしめ醒めやらぬ迷夢を追って自ら破滅への道を辿っている、というのが数奇な彼の半生なのであった。

一説には過ぐる昭和十一年十一月樺甸県で満軍討伐隊に射殺されたので金永山、半島人なる者が第二の金日成としてその後を継いだともいわれているが詳かではない。楊靖宇匪は又、第二方面軍というものを編成して鮮満国境の攪乱を企てている。今その編成を見ると総司令が楊靖宇で、その直系の軍長に金日成を、参謀長に林水山を配し、第七団から第十団まで三団を配下として他に遊撃隊を配し、その総勢は約七百名の多数に上っている。

以上の系統組織は常に有機的な連絡を保ち、しかもその背後にはコミンテルンが糸を操っていることはいうまでもない。近時注目すべき傾向は彼等の驚くべき赤色化である。必要以上の殺伐凶暴はやらぬが、思想的に良民に呼びかけてこれを獲得するというような傾向に移行して来たことである（つづく）

京城日報 1939年6月16日

討匪戦線縦走

咸北支局生 （２）

伝説めく金日成：さすがに緊迫感漂う三長

[...] この夜、旅舎、栄屋の洋灯の下で又しても匪賊の話がはずんだ。ここは矢張り現地であるだけに聞く話も非常に実感が伴って来る（語る人は、筒井警察部長、三輪高等課長と記者団）。

「金日成という男はいったいどんな男だろうかね？一説には先年東辺道で討伐軍に殺されて以来、実在の人間では無いなどと言われているようだが...」

「いや立派に実在の人間なんだ。現に数年前ある新聞記者がその本拠を訪ねて会っている。写真にも出なかったが確かに、金日成に逢うの記...というのが新聞に載って大きなセンセイションを掻き起したことがある」

「そいつは少し眉唾ものでは無かったかね。併し、実在の人間には違いない。彼の出身地は咸南甲山だといわれていたが、本当は平北だそうだ。幼少の頃、父は万歳騒ぎで死刑になったが、それから彼は父の衣鉢をついで民族主義運動に走り匪賊となった。いわば奴は哀れなる宿命の子なんだね。しかしまた三十そこそこだそうだが、匪賊の面目として師団長格なんだから相当な傑物には違いないね」

「今度お越しのお客さんは、この金日成の親分で、呉白龍という奴だそうだ。呉白龍はいま[??]附近にいるそうだが、どうかね、一つ呉白龍に会うの記でも書いたら。確かに、近頃大したスクープだが誰か行って見る勇気は無いか？」

[...]

[Sources]

普天堡の戦い - Wikipedia

https://www.archive.org/details/kjnp-1937-11-18

https://www.archive.org/details/kjnp-1939-05-28

https://www.archive.org/details/kjnp-1939-06-16

 

Imperial Japan had postwar plans to quadruple Japanese settlers in Korea to dominate the most technologically intensive industries, and suppress Korean access to higher education to quell 'dissatisfaction' (June 1943)

I recently came across two intriguing news articles from the Japanese colonial period of Korean history that shed light on the intricacies of the colonial government's decision-making process. The goal was clear: they aimed to increase the number of ethnic Japanese people in Korea from 700,000 to a whopping 4 million to solidify Imperial Japan's colonial control over Korea. However, their approach to achieving this was not without its contradictions.

While the officials wished to increase the number of college-educated Koreans to boost industrial production, they were wary of producing too many. An oversaturated job market could lead to a surge of unemployed college graduates, sparking potential discontent.

Simultaneously, the resettlement of educated Japanese into Korea was to provide staffing for the newly developed industries. Yet, they had to strike a balance as overpopulation of these industries could have led to staffing shortages back in Japan.

Furthermore, they faced a dichotomy in their approach to supporting businesses. On one side, there was a desire to extend aid to existing small and medium-sized businesses to ensure their survival (maintenance and nurturing), and on the other side, resources were to be expended to usher in new businesses (expansion).

The postwar immigration policy of the colonial regime, as discussed in these articles, would have seen the settlement of over 3 million additional Japanese people into Korea. Most would have been employed in the most technologically intensive industries, and a significant number of Japanese farmers would have settled in the Korean countryside. Consequently, educational opportunities and job prospects would have been far more limited for Koreans than for the Japanese settlers, exacerbating existing ethnic inequality and discrimination.

What is both revealing and disturbing is that the phrase 'treated as Koreans' from the text was indicative of mistreatment. This phrase underlines the generalized notion that Koreans were not treated well, and surprisingly, colonial officials openly admitted to this discrimination happening in Japan.

Interestingly, there are also depictions of Korean cultural practices, such as upper-class Koreans not smoking unless elders permit them to, not using the term 'goodbye,' and subordinates speaking to superiors while standing over them. As someone not intimately familiar with these traditions, I would love to hear from our Korean members about the accuracy of these descriptions.

I'm sharing these articles to provide some context to the complex dynamics of the colonial period and invite thoughtful conversation. As always, let's keep exploring these issues.

Panelists from the colonial government in the roundtable discussion

(Translation)

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) June 19, 1943

A real look into the Korean Peninsula at war

Roundtable discussion with executives at the Interior Ministry of the Governor-General's Office (Part 5)

Take care to understand the differences in the customs of the upper-class households

Kōtaki Motoi, Director of the Production Bureau: In Korea, too, there are polite individuals in irritating households that have been brought up in Confucianism for generations. In such households, family members refrain from smoke in front of their elders. Unless explicitly given permission by their parents, children wouldn't even dare smoke if offered cigarettes as guests. It seems such strict manners are prevalent in the upper-class households of Korea. But such customs do not permeate the entire society. Furthermore, these customs can be strikingly different from those practiced in mainland Japan. For instance, in my household, I employ a maidservant who, according to Korean etiquette, stands and speaks even when the master is sitting. In other words, the maidservant stands up to speak while looming over her master. After speaking, she kneels down, places her hands on the floor, and then leaves without uttering a goodbye, because it is deemed inappropriate to sit together with the master. It is strange, but a simple phrase like "goodbye" do not exist. When the conversation ends, Koreans just bow silently and leave.

Nakai Kazuo, a member of the Interior Ministry and the Parliament: Evidently, the cultural differences are immense.

Shiota Seikō, Director of Department of Rural Villages: As Nakai-san previously pointed out, there is a prevalent belief that uneducated Koreans tend to migrate to mainland Japan, creating negative sentiments among the Japanese. However, this is not entirely true. Many educated Koreans also move to mainland Japan. However, when Koreans go to mainland Japan, they are generally treated as Koreans. Then, when those Koreans return to Korea, they tell others that mainland Japanese are extremely outrageous and have a sense of superiority. That is why we need to distinguish between the good ones and the bad ones.

Mr. Nakai: Speaking candidly about the student problem, I think it may be necessary to dissuade Korean youth from attending specialized schools or higher, such as law schools. Especially now, competition is fierce since many people want to enter specialized schools or higher in mainland Japan. One must be very competent to be able to enter such schools, but the problem is what happens after graduation. For example, it's quite difficult to be hired as a public servant regardless of whether you are Korean or Japanese. Dissatisfaction arises. Receiving a higher education may cause mental distress, and I think it may lead to very negative outcomes.

Director Shiota: Even if those with aspirations in technical fields go to schools in mainland Japan and acquire skills, when they return to Korea, there is a delicate issue in that the factories and mines in Korea are unable to accommodate them all.

Mr. Nakai: In fact, even in mainland Japan, we are now saying, "Close down the specialized schools or higher that are not directly useful for this war". The trend is moving in that direction. Ideologically, I think it would be good to strongly recommend a vocational education to our Korean compatriots as much as possible. Before, I thought that it would be good to have the Koreans work in the fields of science and engineering and have Korea be developed mainly by the hands of Koreans. But hearing your story, Director Shiota, it appears that the situation isn't that simple.

Yamana Mikio, Chief of the Documentation Division: We are focusing on giving the Koreans a practical education in junior high schools and below.

Morita Masayoshi, member of the Interior Ministry: There are 700,000 mainland Japanese and 24 million Korean people. Therefore, the 700,000 will have to lead the 24 million, but I think this number is small. Some people say that there must be at least 4 million mainland Japanese people on the Korean peninsula. Then, what are the strategies for increasing this number, and how should we proceed?

Mr. Nakai: I would like to approach this issue from the following perspective. The main theme of this provisional conference is enterprise reinforcement and production increase, with a particular focus on resolving the food shortage problem. I would like to further explore the relationship between enterprise reinforcement, the Governor-General's Office, and its impact on the Korean peninsula, before proceeding to tackle the current problem...

Director Kōtaki: In Korea, there are no enterprises similar to those in mainland Japan, either currently or under planning. That is what I meant when I said earlier that Korea is still a child. Therefore, we are not considering tackling the issues that mainland Japan is thinking about in a big way. Labor issues are being seriously considered, but the primary labor sources in Korea have traditionally been the rural areas. Small and medium-sized businesses in Korea are not primary labor sources, and they are something that we need to advance from now on. But even if we try to reinforce the small and medium-sized businesses in Korea now, I don't think that it will have much effect. Instead, we must expand the businesses, depending on what they are. Accordingly, the maintenance and nurturing of small and medium-sized businesses in Korea is what we have been doing so far.

Mainland Japan has alternated between the maintenance and nurturing phase and the reorganization phase, and as it enters the decisive stage of this great war, it is about to actively enter a reinforcement phase. In contrast, Korea has consistently been in the maintenance and nurturing phase from beginning to end, as the Governor-General's Office says, but actual problems cannot be solved this way. A growing sentiment of discontent is emerging. (to be continued...)

Welcoming the Desired Excellence in Technology, Immigration of Mainland Japanese Farmers also Welcome (June 20)

Director Kōtaki: One of the compelling reasons for maintaining and nurturing small and medium-sized businesses in Korea is that the relatively large population of mainland Japanese people who come to Korea is engaged in such industries. We can't easily rationalize and consolidate these, so we have been focusing on maintaining and nurturing them as before. However, this cannot continue indefinitely. For example, if the textile industry in mainland Japan is developed, then the flow of people from mainland Japan to Korea will drastically decrease. There is also a large proportion of mainland Japanese people involved in wholesaling. As the products handled by the wholesalers gradually decrease, there are concerns about wholesaling businesses imploding in various areas.

The production of daily necessities sold in Korea is still very scarce in Korea. We are heavily reliant on production in Osaka and other places in mainland Japan. If production in mainland Japan can't keep up, then products will become even scarcer in Korea. At this stage, we are backed into a corner, so we need to do something and take some measures to support small and medium-sized businesses. That's why we are preparing this budget. I can't say that it's the same for the whole industry, but as you know, the production of daily necessities is not enough today. We have aimed to make Korea an Asian continental military base. We consider this our mission, and in some respects, we are proud of it. In that sense, even small businesses in Korea will be run by mainland Japanese people. In the future, the lives of Koreans will become more Japanized, and the consumer goods consumed by mainland Japanese people and Korean people will become the same. Naturally, since there are transportation difficulties in sending daily necessities to the Asian continent, such as Northern China, Manchuria, or small places like Kwantung Leased Territory, we want each place to be self-sufficient. That's why we want Korea to supply itself with everything on a comprehensive basis. From that point of view, the time for reorganization has not yet come, and a considerable number of industries have already relocated here from mainland Japan due to the urgent need in Korea. I think there are more than 200 firms that have already relocated here, but I think we still have to grow more. However, even if we manage to find the funds and labor necessary for growth, the raw materials cannot be readily procured from mainland Japan. That's why we have to produce such raw materials in Korea.

Creating new factories will inevitably lead to idle facilities. However, it is also necessary use this opportunity to bring excellent technology from mainland Japan to Korea to make it a supply base for the Asian continent. Integration with excellent technology will be good for the businesses themselves. So it's not that we don't have to reorganize the industry at all. It's just that I think that we still need to keep encouraging small and medium-sized businesses.

Mr. Morita: So, in conclusion, it's going to be difficult to increase the number mainland Japanese people in Korea, who currently number 700,000?

Director Kōtaki: It's difficult, but if possible, I want to bring excellent technology to Korea. Electrochemical industries and light metal industries are going to expand rapidly. By having everyone from middle-level technicians, public servants, high-level technicians to lower-level leaders come in from mainland Japan, I think the overall technology level of Korea will improve, so I think we need to continue to bring in more people.

Also in rural areas, it would be very good if we could settle more mainland Japanese people, but since the situation now is such that Korean youths are helping out with farming in mainland Japan, I think it may be difficult.

Director Shiota: Having farmers from mainland Japan come here for the expansion and improvement of agricultural productivity would be very good. Such models exist here and there. For instance, it has been over ten years since about one hundred graduates from Katō Kanji's higher elementary school settled in the area along the route from Seoul to Wonsan. Furthermore, about one hundred and fifty children are currently attending the higher elementary school. These people truly embody the spirit of hard work. They built their own fancy homes, apparently made of brick, by employing Chinese laborers while they themselves also worked and earned wages. Even the Chinese laborers were astounded and claimed that they were more skilled than themselves. [laughter] They are farmers who have a very developed hard working spirit.

There's another instance of two brothers who received the same education and settled in a deserted mountain near Mount Kongō. Initially, when they started planting deciduous pine trees and corn on the mountain, the Korean people mocked them, questioning what could be achieved in such a place. However, nowadays, everyone is following their example and planting corn. Models like these exist in various places. The worst are the so-called 'haori peasants' who act like landlords and employ laborers for farming. They even buy their vegetables from the Chinese, so some of them are gradually becoming unsuccessful.

In Korea, there are quite a few immigrants who came through the Oriental Development Company, some of whom have been successful, while others have not. To name some recent outstanding cases, people from mainland Japan are coming to Korea and growing sweet potatoes. We thought the best yield in Korea would be about 200 kan [750 kg] per tan [~0.25 acre, ~0.1 hectare], but there are places in Gongju where the yield is 960 kan [3,600 kg]. Surrounding areas have all turned to sweet potato farming, and Chungcheongnam-do's sweet potato seedlings are in high demand. I believe that it's better to bring in one mainland Japanese farmer to Korea than to bring in ten mainland Japanese technicians. That's why I'm trying to bring in about 50 families of mainland Japanese farmers who have received an education like Katō Kanji's, but with the current situation, many farmers find it increasingly difficult to live in Korea and are leaving. There are various reasons, but young men are increasingly being drafted and dying in the war. If they stay in mainland Japan, relatives can somehow lend a hand, but here in Korea, there's nothing they can do, so some of them return to mainland Japan. Regardless of whether bringing in young, vigorous individuals from mainland Japan would work or not, there is a considerable demand for mainland Japanese farmers to settle in Korean rural areas.

I recently visited a place where there were eight households of mainland Japanese farmers, nine of whom had soldiers who were conscripted for war. In one household, a 16-year-old child was all alone, making a seedbed. In one irrigation association district, it seems everyone is trying to help in various ways, but it still seems daunting. Even though good farmers have come, there's no way to retain them. There is nothing better than to bring in mainland Japanese farmers, because it's certain that things will improve this way. (to be continued...)

(Transcription)

京城日報　1943年6月19日

決戦半島の真姿

内務省委員総督府幹部対談会（5）

上流家庭では厳格理解せよ、習慣の違い

上瀧基、殖産局長：朝鮮でも先祖代々儒教で育ったやかましい家には行儀正しいものもある。そういう家では例えば目上の人の前で煙草は喫まない。親子で来た客などに煙草をすすめても親が喫めといわない限りは喫まない。朝鮮でも上流家庭ではそういう厳格な作法があるようだ。ところが一般社会にそういうことはない。もう一つは若しそういう厳格なものがあったとしても、それが内地の場合と全然正反対なことがある。例えば私の家に女中を使っているが、朝鮮の流儀から言うと主人が坐っている時でも女中は立ったまま物を言うことが礼儀で、目上の人には立ちはだかって物を言う。手をついて『さようなら』を言わずにすっと立ち上がって言う。主人と同座ではいけないということなのだ。それから妙なことであるが、『さようなら』というような簡単な言葉がない。話がきれると、だまってお辞儀して帰ってしまう。

中井一夫・内務省委員・衆議院議員：非常に違ったところがあるのですね。

塩田正洪、農村局長：先程中井さんの仰有ったことの中に、内地にどうも教養の低い者が来るので内地人としてもいい感情が湧かんというお話であったが、実際は相当に教養のある者もいるわけである。ところが内地に行ってみると、一概に朝鮮人として扱われる。そこで今度は朝鮮に帰って来た連中は、どうも内地人は優越感を持っていて不埒千万だというようなことにもなる。いい分子と悪い分子との見さかいをつけて頂くことが必要だ。

中井氏：学生問題に就いて率直に言うと、私は朝鮮の青年を余り専門学校以上の法科というような学校にはやらないように仕向けることも必要ではないかと思う。殊に今は内地でも専門学校以上の学校には入学志願者が殺到していて非常な競争である。それに来て入学出来るというのは余程出来る人に違いないけれども、卒業後のことが一つの悩みである。例えば官公吏の採用問題でも、内鮮人を問わず余程困難だ。そこに不平が起る。高い養育を受けたために却って精神的な煩悶を来すということになって、非常に悪い結果を齎すようなことにもなると思う。

塩田局長：技術者方面でも志を立てて内地の学校に行って技術を修得していざ朝鮮に帰って来ても、工場鉱山では全部収容の余地がないとそこにデリケートな問題があるわけである。

中井氏：実は、私共は今内地でも『この戦争に直接役立たない学校なんか専門学校以上のものは閉鎖して了え』と言っている。機運は大分そういう風に動いている。思想的ないろんな関係から見ても、半島同胞には出来るだけ職業教育を大いに推奨することがいいのではないかと思う。そうして理工科方面をやらせて朝鮮の開発は大いに半島同胞の手でやらすということがいいのではないかと思っておったのであるが、塩田さんのお話を聞くとそれも簡単には行かないわけですね。

山名酒喜男、文書課長：中等学校以下は実業教育一点張りでやっている。

森田正義、内務省委員：内地人七十万、半島人二千四百万、そうすると七十万が二千四百万を指導して行かなければならぬことになるが、これでは数が少ないと思う。或る人は少なくとも半島に四百万の内地人はいなければならんといっている。そうすると、これを殖やす方法及び持ってゆき方について何か対策は．．．

中井氏：その問題に就いては私はこういう所から承りたいと思う。それは今度の臨時議会の主題は企業整備及び生産力増強、殊に食糧問題の解決ということが重点であるから、企業整備と朝鮮総督府との関係、どういう影響が半島に及ぶかという問題をお聴きして、それから今の問題にはいって頂いたらどうかと思うが．．．

上瀧局長：朝鮮としては、内地が現にやるし、これからやらんとするような企業がまだない。それがつまり先刻申しました朝鮮がまだ子供だということである。であるから内地が考えておるような問題は大きく取り上げるということは考えていない。労力の問題が真剣に取り上げられて来ているが、従来朝鮮の労力の源泉は農村にある。朝鮮に於ける中小商工業は労力の源泉とはならず、寧ろこれから進めて行かなければならない。そういうものを今整備してみたところで、大して効果はないと思う。ものに依ってはもっと拡充しなければならん。したがって朝鮮に於ける中小商工業は維持育成であるということで今日まで来ておるわけである。

内地は或る時には維持育成、或る時には整理統合ということで来て、結局この大戦争の決戦段階に入って積極的に整備ということが取り上げられて来ているが、朝鮮は終始一貫維持育成で来ているところで実情はどうかと言うと、総督府は維持育成というが現実の問題はそれで済まない。我々をどうして呉れるのだという気持ちが出て来ている。（つづく）

欲しい優秀な技術、内地農家の移住も歓迎（6月20日）

上瀧局長：朝鮮で中小商工業の維持育成という一つの有力な理由としては、朝鮮に来ている内地人の比較的多い階層は中小商工業であるが、これをうかつなことで整理統合ということは出来ないので、従来之等に維持育成という方面に努力して来たのであるが、現状はいつまでもそれでは行けない。例えば内地で繊維産業が整備されて行くとすれば、今まで内地から朝鮮にはいっていたものがどんどん減る。卸に就いては相当内地人方面が多い。だんだん取り扱う商品が減って来るにしたがって自滅するのではないかと心配を各方面でしている。

朝鮮で販売されておる日常生活必需品の生産はまだまだ朝鮮では非常に少ない。大阪その他に多く依存している。それが内地でも足らなくなると朝鮮では益々少なくなって行く。こういう状態にある中小商工業に対して何等かの対策をとらなければならぬという追いつめられた段階に立って、なんとかしなければならないというので、そういう予算も出すことになっている。工業に就いても同じだとは言えぬが、生活必要品の製造業は御承知のように今日とても足らない。朝鮮はかねてから大陸兵站基地ということを目標にして、我々もそれを自任し、或る面に於いては自負して来ておる。そういった意味から朝鮮の小さいものでもそれが内地人の事業であり、また今後益々朝鮮人の生活は内地化され、内鮮人間の消費物資が共通して来るようになると自然、大陸方面に対してどうしても出したい生活必需品は北支、満州、或いは小さくいって関東州というような所でも、輸送の困難というようなことから、それぞれ自給自足をはかりたいということであるが、朝鮮としては、一歩出て全般的に何とかして供給したいという考えを持っている。そういう点からまだまだ整理の機会に至らず、そういった朝鮮の差し迫った必要からして既に内地から移駐して来た工業は相当の数になっている。二百以上もあるだろうと思う。しかしまだまだ殖やして行かなければならんと思う。しかし殖やすについてはそれ等に必要な資金とか労力は何とかするとしても、原材料は中中内地からは来ない。だから朝鮮でそういう原材料を生産して行かなければならない。

新しい工場をどんどん造ると遊休設備が出来ることになる。しかしこういう機会にこそ内地の優秀技術を朝鮮に入れて大陸の供給基地たらしめるということも必要である。技術のなってないものは優秀な技術に統合して行けば事業自体にもいい。だから工業の面でも全然整理しなくていいというのではないが、大体中小工業というようなものは、やはり奨励して行かなければならんじゃないかと考えている。

森田氏：そうすると結論として七十万の内地人を殖やすということは、中々難しいということになりますか。

上瀧局長：難しいのですが、出来れば優秀な技術を朝鮮に持って来たい。電気化学工業とか軽金属工業というようなものは、これからどんどん拡充されて行くわけで、そういう所の中堅技術者、公務員、ずっと上の高級技術者から下の方の幹部職工といったようなところまで、内地からどんどんはいって来ることに依って朝鮮全般の技術の程度も向上すると思うから、そういう方面にまだまだ入れなければならんと思う。

それから農村に於いても農村に内地人を植え付けるということは出来れば非常にいいことであるが、朝鮮の青年が内地に手伝いに行っている位であるから、これは言うべくして中々難しいと思う。

塩田局長：農業生産力の拡充増強に内地の農家が居ることは非常にいい。そういうモデルが方々にある。例えば京城から元山に行く途中に加藤完治さんの高等国民学校を出たのが百戸ばかり来ているが、もう十年以上になる。それからもう百五十人位子供が国民学校に通っている。これなんぞ本当に勤労精神の体得者で、自分達だけで家を造った、煉瓦造りみたようなしゃれた家ですが、それを支那人に請け負わして労力は自分達が雇われて行って人夫賃を貰った。さすがの支那人も舌を巻いて、我等よりうわ手だと言った（笑い声）それ位に勤労精神の発達した農民である。

もう一つはやはりそれと同じ教育を受けた者で、金剛山の近くで荒れた山に入った兄弟がある。最初は山に落葉松を植えたり玉蜀黍を植えたりしていると、それを見て朝鮮人が、「あんなところに何が出来るか」と言って嘲笑っていた。ところが近頃はみんなそれに倣って玉蜀黍を植えたりしている。そういうモデルは方々にある。一番いけないのは羽織百姓というやつで、地主気取りで労働者を使って農業をする。野菜も支那人から買うというようなので、だんだんいけなくなったのもある。

朝鮮では東拓の手を介して来た移民が相当にあるが、成功したのもあり、成功しないものもある。また極めく最近の例では内地人で朝鮮に来て薩摩藷作りをやっているのである。我々も朝鮮ではせいぜい反当り二百貫位がいいところだと思っていたが、公州で九百六十貫を挙げている所がある。その周囲は皆藷作りになって、忠南の藷の苗を一手に出しているが、そこで私は考える。技術者が十人居るよりも一人の農家を朝鮮に入れた方がいい。それで今加藤完治さんあたりの教育を受けた内地農家を五十戸位入れたいと思ってやっているが、こういう時勢になってだんだん住み難くくなって朝鮮を退散する農家が多くなった。いろんな事情もあるが、だんだん若い者は壮丁に取られて、戦死をしたというようなことになると、内地に居れば親族縁達が何とか手伝ってもくれるが、ここではどうにもならんというので帰るのもある。若盛りの者を内地から連れて来てうまく行くかどうか、朝鮮の農村でも内地農家を入れて貰いたいという声は相当にある。

この間に行った所では、内地農家が八戸あって、そこから九人も出征しておる。その中の一軒では誰もいないので十六になる子供が一人で苗床を作ってやっていた。水利組合地区でみんなで色々面倒を見ているらしいが、しかしそういうことでは心細いらしい。折角いい農家が来ても、それを足止めする方法がない。内地農家を入れるに越したことはない。必ずよくなるに決まっているのだから（つづく）

Source 1: https://www.archive.org/details/kjnp-1943-06-19

Source 2: https://www.archive.org/details/kjnp-1943-06-20

Korean director of Straits of Chosun (1943) muted the war propaganda of this Imperial Japanese film to make it a humanistic story about young Korean man from wealthy family who enlists with a heavy heart to win his father’s acceptance of his lower-class wife, rather than from blind patriotism

The following is my thorough transcription, translation, and in-depth analysis/review of an intriguing piece of classic Korean cinematography, which is only in the Japanese language due to unjust colonial policies. Feeling that it is yet another piece of colonial injustice that this piece of Korean film history is inaccessible to Koreans because of the language barrier, I decided to spend some time studying this film.

The Straits of Chosun (朝鮮海峡, 조선해협) (1943) was a propaganda film produced with support from the government of colonial Korea to encourage young Korean men to volunteer to enlist in the Imperial Army. It wanted to show young Koreans that they could also become honorable Imperial soldiers just like the ethnic Japanese.

It is 1943 in Seoul, Korea. Lee Seong-gi (Rinoiye Seiki in Japanese, acted by Nam Seung-min) is a young man from a privileged Korean Yangban family background who was kicked out of the house by his father for marrying Mihara Geum-sook (Mihara Kinshuku in Japanese, acted by Mun Ye-bong), a trusting, kind-hearted Korean woman from an impoverished family background. Seong-gi's father is a traditional Yangban man who cares about family pedigree, so he cannot let Seong-gi marry someone from a much lesser family background.

Geum-sook and Seong-gi during happier days.

Seong-gi (성기, 成基) leaves his lower-class wife, Geum-sook (금숙, 錦淑), to join the Imperial Army in hopes that his father will finally become proud of him and then eventually relent to give his blessing to his marriage. Infuriatingly, Geum-sook's husband left her without telling her anything and broke off all contact with her, leaving his wife confused and distraught, but steadfastly believing that he will eventually come back. Suddenly finding herself without any income, she goes to work to support herself and her newborn baby, and gets from help from Eiko, her Japanese friend, Kiyoko, her husband's younger sister, and others along the way. She sees her husband marching in a military parade, and also tries to meet him as his train departs for the war front, but she just barely misses him. They both somehow end up hospitalized - he is recovering from his wounds in a war hospital in Japan, she is recovering from work exhaustion in a Korean hospital, and they reunite over the phone. Seong-gi's father finally accepts Geum-sook.

Since the target audience was young Koreans, the colonial regime wanted this film to be made by and for Koreans. This is why this film has a Korean director (Park Gi-chae), and the actors are almost all Korean, down to the Imperial Army soldiers who shout 'Banzai to His Majesty the Emperor!' The only credited Japanese actor is Tsubaki Sumie who plays Eiko, the ethnic Japanese friend of Geum-sook. Many well-renowned Korean actors make their appearances with superb acting performances, including Nam Seong-min (playing Seong-gi), Kim Il-hae (playing Seong-gi's father), and Mun Ye-bong (playing Geum-sook), who became a decorated North Korean actress after the war. One of the songs of was sung by Park Hyang-rim, a famous singer who tragically did not survive the war.

Ironically, this film made by and for Koreans was not allowed to use the Korean language due to draconian colonial policies at the time, so that is why all the dialogue in this film is in the Japanese language. Nevertheless, the Koreanness of this film still stands out in the way the film visits well-known locations in Seoul and depicts the everyday lives of the Korean people of Seoul.

This film may superficially look just like any other Imperial Japanese war propaganda film at first glance. Geum-sook serves in the war by working in a factory and then raising her son to become a fine soldier, while her husband fights on the battle front for Imperial Japan. Japanese-Korean Unification themes also pervade this film. Geum-sook's Japanese friend Eiko is the impetus in injecting human kindness into the family, first by befriending Geum-sook, and then by inspiring Seong-gi's sister to become the voice of reason by bringing the traditionally minded parents and the earnest daughter-in-law together.

However, researchers have actually found this film very strange and atypical for its genre. Whereas other Imperial Japanese war films has soldiers willing to die gloriously and joyously for the Emperor, Seong-gi is motivated to enlist not out of blind devotion to the Emperor, but rather out of a simple desire to earn his father's approval to legitimize his love marriage to his wife. There is also no sign of Seong-gi actually enjoying being a soldier. Unlike other war films where soldiers go off to war confident and carefree, Seong-gi goes off to war with his heart worried and unsettled, since his wife still has to experience hardships and his father still disapproves of his wife while he is fighting. Thus, the Straits of Chosun is quite remarkable for depicting the realities of war service in such a complex light.

In other words, this war propaganda film turns out to be less of a war mongering story, and more of a humanist story about one strongly Confucian family that transcends the bounds of tradition to welcome one gentle, kindhearted woman into the family through human kindness. It is for this reason that there is speculation in the blogosphere that director Park Gi-chae may have subtly added other subversive subtexts and undertones into this film. For example, Seong-gi's father is depicted as a very unlikable, extreme Imperialist ideologue, a very unflattering depiction of the real-life Imperialist propaganda that pervaded colonial Korea at this time.

One reviewer even ventures to say, "Straits of Chosun accidentally makes an argument for liberal modernity in which men and women are equal partners in their shared endeavour, the class system has collapsed, and the individual has the right to determine their own destiny free of familial obligation." I wouldn't go so far as to say that. The colonial regime's intention with this film was to release Koreans from familial obligation, so that they could volunteer for enlistment more freely, encourage more women into the workplace, and make everyone an Imperial subject with a single-minded devotion to the Emperor. However, it is admittedly easier to read such subtexts into this film, when the war mongering element of this war propaganda film is so unexpectedly muted.

As hinted by the cherry blossoms that dominate the film, much of the filming was done during March/April 1943 in Gahoe-dong, which was traditionally an exclusive area for nobles, scholars, and residences of government officials where there are many beautiful trees (Source: Keijo Nippo April 17, 1943). The film was said to be an "unprecedented box-office success for a Korean film" when it was released on July 29, 1943 (Source: Terukuni-Sanjin Blog) . Some 138,750 people were said to have watched this film in Seoul, Pyongyang, and Busan.

This film was actually rediscovered in 2005 by the Korea Film Archive survey team who visited the China Film Archive in Beijing. A copy of film was left in Hubei, China by retreating Japanese forces, then picked up by victorious Chinese forces, and then archived and copied by the Chinese authorities after the war. Since so many films from that era were lost or destroyed, it's a fortunate thing that this one somehow survived against all odds. This Google Arts and Culture page shows more materials from this film, including a souvenir group photo that shows all the actors.

This film was persumably sponsored by Riyapapa Cream and Movian Cream, whose product placement ads can be seen in random locations: beside a family photo, on a window in Geum-sook's house. Whashin Department Store may have also sponsored this film, because it features prominently in one scene where Eiko goes on a shopping trip with her friends to buy baby clothes for Geum-sook's baby.

I've posted a video with my Japanese transcription and English subtitles here. Credit to @classicalmovieanimation3151 for posting this video. The following is a longer plot summary with some bookmarks to specific time marks in the film for accessibility.

Longer Plot Summary

[1:45] Seong-gi secretly sneaks into his family home to pay respects to the enshrined remains of his older brother, who was killed in battle. Seong-gi would be next in line as the second eldest son to carry the Lee family name. But, he overhears his father berating him. Dejected, Seong-gi leaves his family home. His younger sister Kiyoko runs into him, and she tells Seong-gi that she'll try to change their father's mind about Geum-sook, but Seong-gi is pessimistic about it.

Seong-gi's parents

[7:18] Geum-sook visits her Japanese friend Eiko, distraught that her husband has gone missing without warning. But she trusts Seong-gi, reasoning that there must be a good reason for his disappearance, and she chooses to wait for him as long as possible.

[9:00] Seong-gi visits his uncle, who is initially unwilling to listen to him. The uncle has been financially supporting Seong-gi in secret behind his father's back, but only for the sake of his mother. The uncle sees Seong-gi as a lazy leach who refuses to work, noting that Seong-gi dropped out of college after marrying Geum-sook. But when Seong-gi tells his uncle that he will join the Imperial Army, his uncle is delighted. However, his uncle still does not accept Geum-sook.

Seong-gi and his uncle

[14:26] Geum-sook has lived a comfortable life with Seong-gi, but now she is short of money ever since his disappearance. Her housekeeper offers to be at her side for free, and Geum-sook gives her some of her treasured clothes as compensation. A young boy pretentiously acts as her boss, giving her some stitching work to do on the side.

Geum-sook gets some sewing work from a boy

[18:15] Eiko visits Geum-sook again and offers to let her stay at her home. Eiko takes Geum-sook for a nice stroll at the Gyeongbokgung Palace, where Eiko suggests that she forget about her husband, and that she could ask her husband's family for help, but Geum-sook stays steadfastly loyal to her missing husband, insisting that she can handle this kind of hardship.

Geum-sook and Eiko at Gyeongbokgung Palace

[24:53] It's spring, and there are cherry blossoms. Seong-gi has joined the army as a voluntary soldier, and he is at an Imperial Army training center. He gets a letter from Kiyoko, his younger sister, letting him know she just found out that he got married. Kiyoko wonders what kind of woman he married.

Seong-gi at army canteen being harassed by a comrade

[28:47] In a flashback sequence, Geum-sook recalls happier days spent with Seong-gi, when they looked forward to having children together. As she wipes away her tears, she goes on mending clothes.

[30:13] In the meantime, Eiko gathers her friends and goes on a shopping trip to Whashin Department Store to buy some baby clothes for Geum-sook. Eiko then meets Kiyoko at a coffee shop and offers her help. However, Kiyoko is unsure if Geum-sook would accept the baby clothes, explaining that Korean culture has a lot more rules and customs to consider than in Japan. Nevertheless, Eiko persuades Kiyoko to offer the baby clothes to Geum-sook.

Eiko and her two Korean friends picking out baby clothes at Whashin Department Store.

[32:36] Later, Kiyoko's father warns her to never let Seong-gi know about the baby. Heeding her father's orders for now, but unable to forget about Geum-sook, Kiyoko visits Geum-sook and offers her the baby clothes, but Geum-sook rejects them.

[36:46] Geum-sook gives birth to a baby boy at home, assisted by a team of friends and a midwife. The women heat water on the kitchen stove and take the hot water to the birthing room. Kiyoko tells her mother about the baby boy, but her mother tries to suppress her excitement, as if it were the wrong emotion to have.

Warming some water in the kitchen for Geum-sook who is in labor.

[40:26] Seong-gi's father reads the news and finds out that his son Seong-gi will be in a military parade, and the whole family is delighted. Carrying her newborn, Geum-sook chases after Seong-gi along the parade route in vain, hoping to get even a brief glimpse of her husband.

Geum-sook carries her child through the streets during military parade.

[45:53] Geum-sook has found work at a clothing factory. At noon, the alarm blares and she observes the Moment of Silence to honor fallen Imperial soldiers. During her break time, she sews a senninbari cloth war amulet for good luck for her husband.

Geum-sook hard at work at clothing factory.

[47:22] There is a family celebration at the Lee family home for Seong-gi's last dinner at home before he goes off to war. Seong-gi tells his family he wants to make one last visit to a friend before he heads to the train station. But he receives a secret note from his younger sister, and he learns for the first time that he has a newborn baby. He also finds out where his wife lives. Seong-gi heads there instead.

Seong-gi has his last dinner with his family before deployment.

[51:35] Seong-gi visits the house where his wife now lives, but it turns out she is still at work at the clothing factory, and she is not home yet. Seong-gi cannot wait, so he continues on to the train station before Geum-sook has the chance to come see him.

[52:19] Seong-gi's younger sister Kiyoko calls to let Geum-sook know that Seong-gi stopped by, so Geum-sook leaves work early and hurries back home, but barely misses him. She and Kiyoko hurry to the train station on a taxi, but also miss him there. Dejected, Geum-sook drops the cloth war amulet that she had meant to give Seong-gi. It is then that Kiyoko and her mother arrive, and Geum-sook meets her mother-in-law for the first time.

Geum-sook misses her husband's departure and cries.

[1:02:57] Seong-gi injures his foot in battle, while Geum-sook collapses from exhaustion on the factory floor. Geum-sook is in a hospital in Seoul, while Seong-gi is recovering in a war hospital in mainland Japan.

[1:03:30] Father is infuriated at Kiyoko for telling Seong-gi about his baby. The father keeps rejecting his grandchild, so Kiyoko takes the baby and plops him right in front of her father. Her father's heart gradually melts and he takes a liking to his new grandchild.

[1:09:19] Geum-sook receives an international call from Seong-gi across the Strait of Korea. Seong-gi reveals that he wasn't going to contact his wife until he got his father's approval of his wife.

Geum-sook recovering at a hospital.

[1:12:26] Seong-gi's father finally comes to visit Geum-sook in the hospital and give his blessing to her marriage to Seong-gi. Meanwhile, Seong-gi walks along the beach in Japan with a nurse and looks across the Strait in the direction of Korea, looking forward to reuniting with his wife again.

Seong-gi and nurse standing on a beach in Japan looking in the direction of Korea.