U.S. soldiers guard the Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) newspaper office on September 11, 1945, three days after the start of the U.S. military occupation of southern Korea

This photo is from a page in the Keijo Nippo newspaper that I stumbled upon during my visit to the National Library of Korea a few months ago. Taken on September 11, 1945, just days after the U.S. military arrived in Korea on September 8th, it shows U.S. soldiers guarding the entrance to the Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) newspaper office. Keijo Nippo was the propaganda organ of the Imperial Japanese colonial regime which ruled Korea from 1905 to 1945. It is rather ironic that a newspaper that called for the destruction of the U.S. so many times during the war is being guarded by the very forces whose destruction it called for in its publications.

U.S. soldiers standing guard at the Keijo Nippo newspaper office on September 11, 1945.

Today, the Keijo Nippo newspaper building no longer exists, and the Seoul Shinmun building has now taken its place.

In the Keijo Nippo newspaper, the arrival of the U.S. military occupation of southern Korea was marked by the following curfew notice which was issued by the outgoing Japanese colonial governor Ikeda on September 8th, 1945 on behalf of the U.S. military authorities. On September 9th, 1945, the Japanese colonial government issued its last directive before handing over power to the U.S. military occupation: the prohibition of raising the Japanese flag after 4:00 p.m.

September 8, 1945 curfew notice published on September 10, 1945.

[Translation]

Curfew Notice

From 8:00 PM to 5:00 AM

Effective from September 8th onwards, in both the districts of Keijō (Seoul) and Incheon, under the directive of Major General Hodge of the U.S. 24th Army Corps, from the evening of September 8th onwards, in Seoul and Incheon, passage is prohibited for anyone except those listed below from 8:00 PM until 5:00 AM the following day.

Those who violate this will be strictly punished.

Exceptions:

1. Police officers, fire brigade members, civil defense members, and other night watchmen.
2. Visiting doctors.
3. Those who need to travel for work during the prohibited hours. In this case, government officials must have a certificate issued by their office, and others must have a certificate stating this fact from their employer and authenticated by the local police station chief.
4. Persons with an outing permit issued by the U.S. Army authorities.

Dated: September 8, 1945

Gyeonggi Province Governor, Kiyosaburo Ikeda

---

Prohibition of Raising the Japanese Flag

A directive was issued by the Governor-General of Korea on the evening of September 8th as follows: From 4:00 PM on September 9th, 1945, the national flag of Japan shall not be raised. Any Japanese national flags or symbols that are currently visible to the public should be immediately lowered after the same time. This order is to be strictly enforced and applies to areas south of latitude 38 degrees North.

[Transcription from the September 10th, 1945 issue of Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo)]

通行禁止

夜八時より朝五時迄

八日以降、京城・仁川の両地区

米軍第二十四軍司令官ハッジ中将の指令に依り九月八日以降京城及び仁川府に於いては午後八時より翌日午前五時に至るの間、左記以外の者の通行を禁止す。

右に違反する者は厳重に之を処罰す。

記

一、警察官、消防署員、警防団員、其外夜警員

二、往診医師

三、職務上右禁止時間内に通行を必要とする者但し此の場合は官公署職員に就いては官公署の発する証明書、其他の者に就いては雇主より此の旨明記し所轄警察署長の認証する証明書を有するを要す

四、米国進駐軍当局の外出認可証を有する者

昭和二十年九月八日

京畿道知事 生田清三郎

---

日本国旗、掲揚禁止

九月八日午後八時朝鮮総督府より左の如き命令発せられ、昭和二十年九月九日午後四時以降日本国国旗は掲揚することなく、現に人目に触るる箇處に掲揚しある日本国国旗又は之を表示する標識は同時以後直ちに降下すべき事を厳重に命令す、前項の命令は之を北緯三十八度以南の地に適用す。

Shortly thereafter on September 11, 1945, Keijo Nippo published the following pages reproducing Proclamation No. 1 of Commander-in-Chief Douglas MacArthur, along with Proclamations No. 2 and 3, as well as the official surrender document which was signed on September 9, 1945 during the official Surrender Ceremony. The official English copies of Proclamations Nos. 1-3 were published in the second page. The photo of the U.S. soldiers in front of the Keijo Nippo newspaper office was published the following day on September 12, 1945.

September 11, 1945 issue, page 1

September 11, 1945 issue, page 2

September 12, 1945 issue

More historical photos of the Surrender of Imperial Japan in Korea (National Museum of the U.S. Navy): link

August 28, 1945: Colonial regime announces a peaceful transition of power to the new incoming Korean government, reopens comfort women services, department stores, cafés in Seoul as popular uprising subsides, plans orderly repatriation of Japanese residents

This is another fascinating historical article that I stumbled upon during my visit to the National Library of Korea a few months ago. This is a news announcement made on August 28, 1945 announcing an orderly, peaceful transition of power just 13 days after Imperial Japan surrendered on August 15, 1945. In the initial few days after August 15th, the military authorities were at the forefront making defiant announcements in the face of a massive Korean popular uprising, but for the first time since Imperial Japan's surrender, a civilian leader, Mr. Konishi Haruo, has come forward to address the nation in a sober, conciliatory address emptied of the usual Imperialist bravado, to provide a blueprint for a peaceful transition of power to the new Korean state and the repatriation of Japanese residents back to Japan.

Mr. Konishi's address, photo taken at the National Library of Korea

Mr. Konishi was a 66-year-old mining executive at Meiji Mining who came from a respectable Samurai family in Fukuoka prefecture. He had a distinguished career at various banks, treasuries, and chambers of commerce in Korea and Manchuria. There had always been tensions between civilian and military authorities in colonial Korea, but it seems that, in this moment, the military people have retreated into the background and the civilian leaders like Mr. Konishi have gained the upper hand.

Konishi calls upon Japanese residents in Korea to act responsibly, contributing positively to both their homeland and the new independent Korean state. He is confident that the rights of Japanese residents will be respected in a new humanitarian and civilized Korean state. He also touches on the practicalities of repatriation, like the handling of properties and belongings by trust companies and warehouses, and the limitations of transport capacity for returning all Japanese residents within the year. Konishi concludes by emphasizing the achievements of Japanese governance in Korea, such as infrastructure and financial systems, and expresses hope for a respectful and responsible transition period.

In the usual fashion, the editors at Keijo Nippo places positive, upbeat news articles adjacent to dark, serious news articles. This time, the 'positive' articles are about the reopening of 'high-end entertainment establishments' like restaurants, cafes, and comfort women services (kisaeng). This may have been a goodwill gesture by the colonial authorities to appease the angry populace and relieve social tensions ahead of the peaceful handover of power. For days after August 15, the civil unrest was apparently so intense that shops couldn't open, but by August 27, the unrest had died down enough for shops to cautiously reopen, but there were still apparently not many shoppers who dared to ventured out to go shopping.

Note: These were challenging articles to decipher because of the poor state of preservation of the newsprint. There was a small section of the text that I just couldn't make out, so I indicated this with ellipses. Sorry that I forgot to take a picture of the accompanying grainy news photo of shoppers gathered around a stall in a department store.

[Translation]

Gyeongseong (Keijo Nippo) August 28, 1945

On the Issue of Repatriation

By Haruo Konishi

August 15th. What is more to say about that day? However, what has been the state of Seoul, the capital of all Korea, in this past week? There are countless things that are truly lamentable. Do not panic! It is extremely important for us, as citizens of a great nation, to maintain our composure. But who were the very first ones to panic? Who were the ones to cause this chaos? Now is not the time to delve into that.

In this grave crisis, the responsibilities of the Governor-General's office are indeed significant. How should they guide the 26 million people of the Korean peninsula? What should be done about the 1.2 million mainland Japanese residents in Korea? Maintaining public order and securing transportation and communication are absolutely crucial. Even if the transfer of power to the newly emerging state and its new government occurs peacefully, things like sorting office documents, clearing desks and shelves, and arranging for the handing over of lodgings are of least importance. The transfer of the city is often talked about in dramatic tales, but the transfer of the Governor-General's rule is not just a matter of formality. There are much bigger issues at hand. I understand that the authorities are making great efforts, but they must not get things backwards.

In the future, it won't be easy to simply dispose of the businesses, homes, and properties that over 1.2 million mainland Japanese residents in Korea have painstakingly developed over the past three to four decades.

On the other hand, what is the situation in our motherland? What about the food and population problem? The unemployment situation? The war victims? What if people from China, Manchuria, Korea, Taiwan, Sakhalin, and the South Pacific all repatriate to mainland Japan at once? There would likely be unimaginable difficulties. In addition to the country's existing hardships…

…the Japanese people were supposed to, under the grand vision of the Emperor, play a key role in peace and contribute to cultural development by expanding overseas. But what should have been a matter of concern was if this, instead, led back to domestic repercussions, inevitably leading to a path of further misery.

In this sense, I believe there are many points we need to learn and adopt broadly. From this perspective, the mainland Japanese residents in Korea should hold their ground to the utmost extent, contributing not only to our motherland but also to the newly emerging state.

Various national policies will be established and implemented in the new state. However, the new state will undoubtedly be a civilized and humanitarian one, adhering to international standards of humanity, and not a barbaric state. Therefore, I firmly believe that there is absolutely no concern that the private rights of mainland Japanese residents in Korea will be unreasonably confiscated, trampled upon, or plundered. With this understanding and insight, I have been advising people around me not to panic, but to calmly observe and handle the transition. A few days ago, I read former Seoul University Professor Yasuda's opinion in the Keijo Nippo newspaper and largely agreed with him, but I hope those in power will guide the people well. The Japanese people of Northern Korea repatriated in a state of confusion because Northern Korea became a battleground due to the Soviet Union's offensive. This is completely different from the situation of the Japanese people in Seoul repatriating to mainland Japan.

The real estate properties of the repatriating people will be taken care of by a certain trust company, and their belongings will be stored in a certain warehouse. This is indeed commendable. However, this sounds to the people like they are being forced to hurry and repatriate. With this view in mind, they should be guided to stay and devote themselves to their livelihoods, showing great ambition and spirit, as it will likely be impossible to complete all repatriations within this year with the current transportation capacity.

Even if the Governor-General's office is abolished, its residual duties must be managed, and some of them will likely be inherited by a future embassy or legation. It goes without saying that financial institutions and transportation and communication facilities must hold their ground until the end, ensuring as smooth as possible a transition of power, not just leaving things to "fate".

There were considerable achievements during the Governor-General's rule in terms of roads, ports, electricity, transportation, water resources, finance, etc. A certain Korean scholar said that it probably would have taken more than 200 years for the Korean people alone to achieve this much. Now is the most crucial time. This autumn is the time for us all to exercise self-restraint. (The writer is the Managing Director of Meiji Mining)

Towards a Brighter, Leisure-Focused Society

Relaxation of Restrictions on High-End Leisure Activities

Aiming for a return to a brighter society and life, the government is currently studying the removal of various restrictions imposed as wartime measures. As an immediate step, the full-scale lifting of the ban on high-end leisure activities, which was part of the "Decisive Battle Emergency Measures" implemented in March last year and further extended for a year this March, has been decided. Consequently, not only the opening of restaurants and cafés but also the employment of female entertainers and kisaeng is now permitted. Furthermore, authorities are also advancing their research on potentially freeing up special leisure sectors such as dance halls and cabarets depending on the situation.

Department Stores Struggle with Decline in Customer Foot Traffic

Reopening Since Yesterday

Since that day, various department stores had been completely closed, but they reopened their doors from August 27th. However, due to a lack of merchandise, the situation is such that, conversely, black markets have emerged in the city offering almost everything at high prices. Consequently, domestic department stores like Mitsukoshi, Chōjiya, and Minakai had fewer customers than expected on their long-awaited reopening, especially in food and textile sections which remained quiet. Only a few Western goods, cosmetics, and general merchandise were being sold to some extent.

Mitsukoshi, for instance, had been holding a swap meet for unnecessary items since the beginning of the month, which was suspended on August 16th, and exchanges were halted. But from August 27th, the retrieval of items resumed. As for the purchases of furniture and household goods of repatriating people by various department stores, which are reportedly to be organized by a certain mainland Japanese welfare association, there is no official word yet, so people are slowly bringing in items.

According to observations from various stores, there might be fewer items for sale now since so many were sold off at once previously, and the situation in the surrounding areas has somewhat stabilized, suggesting that there may not be a need to rush into selling. This could be why there are surprisingly few items up for sale. [Photo = At a certain department store]

[Transcription]

京城日報 1945年8月28日

引き揚げ問題に就いて

小西春雄

八月十五日。もう何もいう事はないのである。併し此一週間に於ける全鮮就中主都たる京城の様相はどうだ。真に浩嘆に耐えぬ事が夥しい。周章狼狽するな。大国民たるの襟度を保てと尤も千万である。だが抑も誰が一番先きに慌てたか。誰が周章狼狽せしめたか。今敢えて詮議立てはせぬ。

此の大難局に際し総督府の責務は実に大きい。半島二千六百万の民衆を如何に指導すべき乎、在鮮百二十万の内地人を如何に措置すべきか。而して治安の維持と交通通信の確保が絶対に把握されねばならぬ。軈て生れ出る新国家。やがて樹立さるる新政府との間に平和裡に接収と引き渡しとが行われるにしても、官庁の書類の整理や戸棚や机の取片付けや、宿舎明け渡しの手配の如きは末の末である。城の引き渡しは浪花節でもよく語る。併し総督政治の明け渡しは、ソンナ形式的の事ではない。もっともっと大きな問題がある。当局に於いては嘸かし御苦心の事と察するが、断じて本来顛倒はゆるされぬのである。

今後は在鮮百余万の内地人が此三、四十年間に苦心惨憺を据えて、夫々の生業に従事し来った結晶ともいうべき事業や家産や財産は、短時間に簡単に処理の出来る筈のものでない。

翻って母国の状態は如何。食糧人口の問題は如何。失業状態は如何。戦災者は如何。支那、満州、朝鮮、台湾、樺太、南洋各地から内地へ一度に引き揚げて来たならば如何。蓋し想い半に過ぐるものがあろう。国歩困難の上に更に．．．

．．．国民は、大御心の下に平和の鍵役として文化発展の為に貢献すべく海外各地に進出すべきでこそある。憂惧すべきでこそあるそれが逆に内地に帰結する様ではさらに悲惨の一路を辿る外あるまい。

其の意味で吾は今後寛闊に学ぶべき点が多々あると思う。其の観点からするも在鮮の内地人諸君は何処迄も踏み止って、母国の為に、将に新国家の為更に貢献する處なくてならぬ。

新国家では色々の国策が樹立され施行せられよう。併し新国家は立派な文明的の国家たるに相違ない。人道的の国家で天下の人道を基準とするもので、野蛮国家でない事に一抹の疑念もない。従って在鮮の内地人の私権が理不尽に没収され、蹂躙され、又は掠奪さるる如き懸念は絶対にあり得ないと確信する。余は此見解と見透しの下に身辺の人々に慌てるな、落ち着いて推移を静観善処せよと説いて居る。数日前、元城大安田教授の御意見を京日紙上で拝見し大体に於いて同感したが、更に権力ある方々からよく民衆を指導して戴きたい。北鮮の人々が右往左往して引き揚げたのは、ソ聯の進攻で北鮮が戦場となったからで、京城人が内地へ引き揚げるのとは全然筋合いが違う。

引き揚げ者の不動産は某信託会社で世話する。又荷物は某倉庫で保管するという。誠に結構である。併し之等が民衆には引き揚げろ引き揚げろと響く。斯く斯くの見渡しであるから安心して踏止って生業に勤め、大器雄心を発揮せよと指導して行くげきであり、現在の輸送力でも今年一ぱいでは到底全部の引き揚げは不可能であろう。

総督府は撤廃となっても残務は処理さるべく、且つ其の一部は将来大使館なり公使館なりに継承されるであろう。金融機関や交通通信機関が最後迄踏み止るのは勿論、新国家をして其の昨日を困難ならしむることなく『あとは野となれ山となれ』ではなく出来るだけ円滑に政権の推移が遂行する様にありたい。

総督政治に於ける道路、港湾、電力、交通、水利、金融等々の治績は相当のものがある。或る半島の識者は、半島人のみの手では二百年かかっても之だけの事業は恐らく出来まいと洩らしていた。今やその最後の一番大事な時である。お互いに自重すべき秋である。（筆者は明治鉱業専務）

明るい享楽面へ

高級享楽停止を解除

明るい社会、明るい生活への復帰をめざし、本府では戦時措置としての種々の制限撤廃を研究中であるが、差し当たり昨年三月実施本年三月さらに一ヶ年延長された『決戦非常措置要綱』中の高級享楽停止を全面的に解除することになった。従って料理屋、カフェーの開店は勿論、芸妓、妓生などの就業も許可されるわけであるが、当局ではさらに場合によってはダンスホール、キャバレー等特殊享楽部面の解放についても研究を進めている。

客足渋る百貨店

きのうから再び店開き

あの日以来すっかり店を休んでいた各百貨店は二十七日から再び蓋を開けたが、何しろ商品のない折柄ではあり、逆に街には闇市場が出て高値さえ承知ならこちらには殆どないものがないという有様なので中止の内地側百貨店は三越も丁子屋も三中井も久し振りの開店の割には客が少なく、特に食料品や繊維製品売場は閑散で、わずかに洋品雑貨、化粧品、荒物類が淋しく売れていく程度である。

三越など月初めから不用品の交換会が行われていたのが十六日で休業となり、交換も中断の形だったが、二十七日からは出品の引き取りが始まったという程度。例の内地人世話会が肝煎りで行うという各百貨店での引揚者の家具家財の買上も正式の話がまだないので、ぼつぼつ持って来る人があるという程度。

何処の店の観測でも一時にあんなにドッと売出したから今更売りに出す人も少ないだろうし、まだ四囲の情勢も落ちついて来たため、更慌てて売りに出さなくてもいいという様な見透しから案外出品は少ないのじゃないかと見ている。【写真＝某百貨店にて】

Koreans first read of the US/Soviet Division of Korea on Aug. 25th, 1945 in this historic Keijo Nippo news article explicitly announcing for the first time that ‘Korea is to be made free and independent’

This is another fascinating historical article that I stumbled upon during my visit to the National Library of Korea a few months ago. This news article is from August 25th, 1945, which stands out for its historical importance as it explicitly mentions for the first time that Korea was going to be divided into U.S. and Soviet occupation zones, and the impending dissolution of the Imperial Japanese colonial regimes in both Korea and Taiwan. This was just 10 days after Imperial Japan's unconditional surrender on August 15, 1945, which marked the end of World War II. This announcement was likely a reaction to the rapid advancements of the Soviet forces, which had reached Pyongyang by August 24th. Given this context, I speculate that the colonial regime, feeling the pressure of these developments, published this article on the following day in order to acknowledge the reality of Korea's impending shift towards freedom and independence. Note that this announcement makes no mention of the 38th parallel, so it would have left Koreans in the dark as to how the Korean peninsula would be divided.

Photo of the article that I took at the National Library of Korea

This article also marks a dividing line in terms of the tone of the language used in public announcements. The announcements before this date tended to use bombastic, inflated language along the lines of typical Imperialist propaganda, but after this date, it quickly disappears to be replaced by more restrained and conciliatory language. It's a clear indication of the changing tides at the end of World War II. However, the article also assured ethnic Japanese residents in Korea that their properties would remain secure, a promise that was not entirely fulfilled, especially in the Soviet-occupied regions.

Alongside this, I am also including a translation of an adjacent announcement in the same newspaper. This secondary announcement sheds light on the cessation of hostilities in Sakhalin and the logistical challenges the newspaper faced in distributing its issues amidst the unrest following Imperial Japan's surrender on August 15, 1945.

Remarkably, the newspaper apparently managed to keep publishing and circulating its editions throughout Korea, even under the challenging circumstances of U.S. and Soviet occupation, until the newspaper finally closed on December 11, 1945 after 39 years of operation. For all the flaws that this newspaper had, at the end of the day, millions of Koreans still relied on this Japanese-language newspaper to keep informed on the latest current events in Korea and around the world, because it was still the main national newspaper with the largest circulation in Korea.

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) August 25, 1945

Korea Will Be Under US and Soviet Occupation (Mainland Japanese People Will Be Absolutely Safe)

The Potsdam Declaration implements the terms of the Cairo Declaration regarding the disposition of our territories, stating that (1) Manchuria, Taiwan, and the Pescadores Islands are to be returned to the Republic of China, and (2) Korea is to be made free and independent. This marks the end of our overseas control of Korea, which lasted 36 years, and our overseas control of Taiwan, which lasted 51 years.

In the case of Taiwan, it is expected to soon fall under the military administration of Chiang Kai-shek, while Korea is expected to be placed under the divided occupation of the United States and the Soviet Union until an independent government is established there. Currently, about 1.2 million Japanese reside in Korea and about 400,000 Japanese reside in Taiwan. They have established a firm foundation in various fields such as politics, economy, and culture over many years. Rapid repatriation and other measures would only lead to chaos, which is clearly intolerable given the current situation in Korea and Taiwan.

Politically, both local Governor-General's Offices will eventually be dissolved, but the contribution of the Japanese in economic and technical sectors is extremely significant. Furthermore, the private property of these Japanese residents, under international law, is of a nature that will not see any changes. Therefore, there is no need for undue anxiety on this point. Moreover, the authorities emphasize that Japanese residents should continue to utilize the foundations of life that they have cultivated over many years, dealing with the new situation with an open and honest heart under international principles and the spirit of ethnic co-prosperity.

Ceasefire in Karafuto (Sakhalin)

【Stockholm, August 21st (Associated Press)】 Moscow Telegraph - It is said that hostilities on the Karafuto front ceased at noon on August 20th.

Notice from Our Newspaper

Since August 16th, there have been some delivery failures or deliveries lost in transit due to accidents involving delivery personnel entrusted by our company, resulting from transportation issues. We earnestly ask for your understanding of the current situation. Our company is doing our best to ensure delivery by encouraging other entrusted parties, including the management office, but there may still be instances of delivery failures or deliveries lost in transit…

[Transcription]

京城日報 1945年8月25日

朝鮮は米、ソが占領（内地人は絶対安全）

ポツダム宣言はわが領土の処分に関しカイロ宣言諸条項を実施し、一、満州、台湾、澎湖島は中華民国に返還すること、一、朝鮮は之を自由且つ独立のものたらしめることを明かにしているので、我外地統制は朝鮮に於いて三十六年、台湾は五十一年の歴史を以て終止符を印することとなった。

此の場合、台湾に就いては早晩蒋介石の軍政に帰属するものと見られるが、朝鮮に就いては自主独立の政府が樹立される迄、アメリカ及びソ聯の分割占領下に置かれ、夫々の軍政が施行されるものと見られている。然して現在の朝鮮には約百二十万、台湾には約四十万の邦人が居住。多年に亘って政治経済文化の諸部門を通じ確固たる地盤を有して居り、早急に引き揚げ其の他の措置に出る事は徒に混乱を招くのみで、朝鮮、台湾の現状からしても到底忍び得ざる事明かである。

政治的には勿論現地両総督府はやがて解消を遂げるであろうが、経済的、技術的部門に於ける邦人の寄与は極めて有力であり、且つ国際法に基くこれら在住邦人の私有財産はいささかの変動を見ない性質のものである。従って此の点何等の杞憂を必要としないのみならず、当局としては在住邦人が多年培った生活の基盤を生かし、現地に踏み止って国際信条に基き民族共栄のもと虚心坦懐以て新事態に対処すべきであるとしている。

樺太交戦停止

【ストックホルム二十一日同盟】モスクワ来電＝樺太戦線に於ける交戦は二十日正午を以て停止されたといわれる。

本紙の立．．．

去る十六日以来輸送関係の不順を予て本社より委託されている配達関係者の事故によって若干配達洩れ、若しくは不配の向がありますが、現下の事情を篤と御諒承願上げます。本社としては目下管理所其他の委託者を奨励して配達に万全を期していますが、差し当たり不配若しくは配達洩れの向は．．．

Note: I'm sorry that the newspaper's notice about the delivery failures is cut off in the photo. I just didn't think to take more pictures of this newspaper page at the time I was at the National Library of Korea. I only wish that I had taken more pictures of the newspapers when I was there, and I hope the library gets around to tracking down the original newspapers and making high quality digital scans of them publicly available.

Imperial Japanese Army finally acknowledges Korea’s imminent independence just over a week after liberation (Aug. 23, 1945) with a jumbled announcement full of desperate denials, threats, and unconvincing reassurances to fend off Korean armed resistance

This is another fascinating historical article that I stumbled upon during my visit to the National Library of Korea a few months ago. This piece is a PSA by the Imperial Japanese military authorities addressing the Korean people on August 23, 1945, just over a week after Imperial Japan's unconditional surrender on August 15, 1945, which marked the end of World War II. This immediate 'lame duck' period after Imperial Japan's surrender was one of uncertainty and transition, as the regime awaited the arrival of Allied forces to assume control. It's worth noting that Soviet forces had already entered Korea by August 14th, but American forces did not arrive until September 8.

Ethnic Japanese residents of Seoul planting turnips in their urban garden.

The regime's radio broadcast on August 18th, just 3 days after surrender, was full of bluster with defiant threats to take military action against protesters, but this PSA one week later seems jumbled and confused despite its best effort to put on a brave face, as if the regime is suddenly unsure of how to address the Korean people. Readers at the time would have surely picked up on this and noticed that something was off, that the regime was not its usual confident, optimistic self. Its string of denials, threats, and reassurances no longer sound so convincing, given the regime's diminished stature. The regime does its best to insist that it is still in charge of Korea, but even it has to acknowledge now that Korea is going to be independent soon. Its desperate denials about expropriations, repatriations, leaflets, and atrocities against ethnic Japanese people only seem to confirm the stark truth of those rumors.

To long-time Japanese readers of Keijo Nippo, reading this PSA would have been jarring and distressing. There are no longer calls to destroy the US and Britain, and there is even a sentence insisting that US and Soviet forces are "certainly not bandits". The admonition that "Koreans should deeply realize that Korea will not become independent through war actions" only reveals to readers that Koreans are still waging an armed uprising against the regime. Their stern warning not to listen to the Committees for the Preparation of Korean Independence (조선건국준비위원회) essentially gives these committees free publicity, telling the entire Korean nation about their existence and only accelerating their political rise. The colonial regime is rapidly unraveling and fading into irrelevance before their very eyes, and a new and unfamiliar reality is suddenly setting in.

I have also included two articles that were placed adjacent this PSA, as if to lighten the mood with some optimism. One article is about the reopening of movie theaters, as if the newspaper is encouraging Koreans to have fun watching movies instead of fighting colonialists. The other article is about ethnic Japanese in Seoul still defiantly planting their urban gardens, even though their repatriation to Japan is in the horizon.

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) August 23, 1945

Be prudent without any anxiety or hesitation!

The Korean Peninsula before the construction (of a new order)

Hearing from Colonel Gotō about the mindset of the people of Korea and Japan

Since August 15th, due to the sudden change in circumstances, there has been some disturbance among the Korean and Japanese people, which is gradually calming down due to strict punishment by the military authorities. The cause of the disturbance was a failure to accurately understand the current situation and being misled by mere rumors. The military authorities and the Governor-General's Office have declared that security is being maintained, and are requesting a calm and composed attitude from the Korean and Japanese people in handling the new situation. The current situation is such that combat operations have ceased in accordance with the Imperial Rescript, and everything will likely be handled smoothly and peacefully according to the formal and rational ceasefire agreement made with the Allied nations. Some people are under the impression that Korea is already able to have an independent government, but Korea is still under Japanese rule, and Japan's sovereignty remains unchanged. The issue of Korean independence will only come up after all negotiations concerning the Empire with the Allied nations are completed. Below, we will hear from Colonel Gotō of the Press Department of the Korean Military Administration about the current situation, and the mindset of the Korean and Japanese people in dealing with it.

Q: Various rumors are circulating, but what is the actual situation now?

A: According to the formal agreement between Japan and the USA, UK, USSR, and China in Manila, detailed agreements will be made for each place based on its local situation. All processes will be carried out based on these agreements.

Q: So Korea remains under Japanese rule until then?

A: Of course. Korea remains a part of Japan until the agreement is concluded, and it is a matter of course that Japan continues governing Korea. Hence, it is unacceptable for outsiders to interfere at this juncture. Some seem to think that Korea will become independent immediately and start governing from that day, which is a grave misunderstanding. Therefore, no orders should be issued by the Independence Preparatory Committees, and absolutely no one is to be involved with any of their social functions.

Q: However, it seems that some have played a part in expropriation mayhem.

A: The recent attempted expropriation incidents are nothing but banditry. There is neither the right nor basis for expropriations yet. Even among belligerent countries, personal properties are not to be touched. Even the US, at the start of the war, froze assets of Japanese residents but did not seize them. We have been abroad several times, and we cannot remember our personal property ever being seized. Of course, temporary occupation may be conducted for military purposes, but this does not apply to the situation in Korea.

Q: B-24 planes came and dropped leaflets the day before yesterday.

A: I do not think the content of the leaflets was particularly inappropriate. However, some of the wording used had a commanding tone, but they do not have the right to give us orders yet. Probably the translation was poor. We are not to take orders directly from them. We only take orders from His Majesty the Emperor. Therefore, they should negotiate with the Japanese government, and we will receive orders from our government.

Q: There were rumors of harm to mainland Japanese people.

A: That is an absurd story. Such perpetrators will be dealt with by the occupying forces, even if Japan does not take action. The world’s morality would not accept it. If such actions are taken, the situation will only become more complicated. The military exists to protect the lives and properties of civilians. There is a reason why the Imperial Rescript to endure the unbearable was issued. It is also the military's mission to strike down such disruptive elements.

Q: What should be the attitude of Korean people at this time?

A: Koreans should deeply realize that Korea will not become independent through war actions and that independence has not yet been established. Currently, there are only talks about granting independence to Korea, but nothing concrete has been decided yet. Therefore, this autumn is a very important time for the people of Korea. They must carefully consider what actions to take. To make an analogy, even opening a small shop cannot be done in just ten or twenty days. Similarly, Korea will require a considerable process and time until independence. Disruptive actions or confrontations with foreign countries during this crucial period of construction may lose the trust of the Allied forces and could even make independence impossible.

Q: Have military families been repatriated?

A: Do not joke about such matters. Not a single person has been repatriated. However, some families of deployed soldiers who had been living in officers' quarters for a long time have been returned home. This has to do with the intended purpose of the officers' quarters.

Q: What should be the mindset of mainland Japanese people?

A: If they understand the above situation, there should be no reason to panic. I think it is questionable to only think about hurriedly repatriating. It is unlikely that Korea will declare war on Japan as soon as it becomes independent. They should demonstrate the composure of citizens of a great nation. Otherwise, they will only be laughed at by the world. There are two main reasons for causing anxiety among mainland Japanese people. One is the rumor that Korean insurgents might harm Japanese people. However, as said earlier, both Japan and the Allied nations are paying utmost attention to maintaining security, so there is no need to worry. If such an unfortunate incident occurs, it will be dealt with severely, either by Japan or by the occupying forces. The other is the fear that the occupying forces might cause harm, but it is unlikely that they would commit violence in front of international monitors, especially after the ceasefire. The US and Soviet forces are certainly not bandits.

Reopening of Movie Theaters

Citywide Simultaneously from August 25th

The permanent movie theaters within Seoul, which had been closed since August 15th, will reopen all at once on August 25th. In mainland Japan too, thanks to the Imperial mandate, entertainment institutions such as movies, plays, and other performances will resume nationwide simultaneously from the 25th, contributing to the brightening of national life.

Since the issuance of the major conscription, the entertainment industry, including movies, theaters, and other performances, voluntarily suspended their shows as part of self-restraint by the operators. Regarding the reopening of these entertainment activities, the Ministry of the Interior has been actively guiding and nurturing the reconstruction of a healthy and bright national life, and had been preparing a concrete plan for the reopening date and procedure. After discussions with the Information Bureau and industry representatives, permission was granted to reopen these entertainment facilities from the 22nd. Instructions to this effect have been sent to all relevant parties nationwide. At the same time, the restriction on performance times has also been temporarily lifted, allowing for evening performances without issue.

Repatriation to Other Places

Sowing Seeds of Hope in One Tsubo Gardens

People are not hurriedly uprooting vegetables from their one-tsubo (about 3.3 square meters) gardens because of rumors about repatriation to mainland Japan. They are harvesting summer radishes that have come into season for tonight's meal and then sowing turnips and Chinese cabbages to eat in the fall. Someone was seen doing this on August 21st in the evacuation ruins of Kōgane-machi [area immediately to the east of present-day Euljiro 1(il)-ga station].

They have lived in the Korean peninsula for thirty years, built their home here, made Korean acquaintances, and have come to think of the growing beauty of the streets of Seoul as their own family's glory. Even today, the streets of Seoul remain their city, and the talk of repatriation to mainland Japan sounds like just some traveler's tale. The reason they dug air-raid shelters together with Koreans during enemy air raids and endured long periods of inconvenient lighting restrictions was all for the love and protection of the beautiful city of Seoul. It is uncertain whether the Governor-General's Office of Korea will yield its political power after three months or six months as part of the ceasefire treaty, but on the day when Korea steps forward under a new order, the hearts of these people who has loved the Korean peninsula for thirty years will not change.

"I do not feel like returning to my homeland even after the reconstruction of the Korean peninsula is complete, but even if I did go back, someone in Korea would eat these vegetables," said the person with the hoe, wiping sweat while sowing turnips in the post-evacuation vegetable garden.

[Transcription]

京城日報 1945年8月23日

何の不安迷いぞ慎重たれ

創業前の半島

後藤中佐に聴く内鮮人の心構え

事態の急遽に依る十五日以来の内鮮人間の動揺も軍当局の厳たる処罰に依り漸次平静に復しつつあるが、動揺の原因は現状を正確に認識せず、単なる流言に惑わされた為で、軍当局並びに総督府では治安の確保を言明。新事態に処する内鮮人の冷静沈着な態度を要望している。現在の事態は、聖断を拝し戦闘行為が中止されたのであって、聯合国との間に取り極められた正式合理的な停戦協定に依って平静円滑に総てが処理されるであろう。一部には既に朝鮮が独立政権を行使し得るかの如く考えている向もあるが、未だ朝鮮は日本の統治下にあり、其統治権は微動たもせず、朝鮮の独立は聯合国との間に帝国に関する総ての処理が完了してから初めて議題に上がるのである。以上朝鮮軍管区報道部後藤中佐に現在の事態と、之に処する内鮮人間の心構えを聴く。

問：巷間種々流言が飛んでいますが、現在正確な事態はどうなっていますか？

答：マニラに於ける日本と米英ソ支の間の正式協定によって現地毎に現地の情勢に基いて細部協定が行われる。その協定に基いて総ての処理が運ばれることになろう。

問：それまでは朝鮮は日本の統治下にある訳でしょう。

答：勿論だ。協定が成立して、前に言った処理が完了する迄は朝鮮は依然日本の一部であり、日本が其統治に当るのが当然である。従って此の際他所の者が入って手をつけるが如きことは許されない。一部には直に朝鮮が独立し、其の日から政治を行い得るが如くいうものがあるようだが、誤解も甚だしい。従って独立の準備委員会等から号令を発したり社会機能の如何なることにも絶対に手はつけられない。

問：しかし一部に接収騒ぎを演じたこともあったようですが。

答：最近行われようとした接収事件は正に匪賊行為だ。未だ接収する権利もなければ根拠もない。抑も交戦国同志でも個人の財産には手はつけられないのだ。米国にしても開戦と同時に在住邦人に対し資産凍結令は出したが、其の財産を奪ってはいない。我々も幾度か外国に出掛けたが、未だ個人の財産に手をつけた覚えはない。勿論軍事上の必要があれば一時占領することは行われるかも知れないが、然しそれも朝鮮の事情に於いては適用出来ない。

問：一昨日B24がやって来てビラを撒布しましたが。

答：ビラの内容は別に不穏当ではないと思う。唯命令口調の言葉が一部使用されてあったが、未だ彼等には命令する権利はない。多分訳文が拙かったのだろう。我々は直接彼等から命令を受けるいわれはない。我々が命令を受けるのは唯天皇陛下からである。従って彼等としては日本政府に交渉すべきであり、我々は日本政府から命令を貰うのである。

問：一部には内地人に危害を加えるなどという流言もあったようですが。

答：とんでもない話だ。そんな奴は日本が手を下さずとも進駐軍が処理する。又世界の道義が承知しないだろう。若しそんなことをすれば事態は益々紛糾するばかりだ。軍隊は一般の生命財産を守るために厳存している。忍ぶべからざるを忍べとの聖断が下された謂れもここにある。左様な不穏分子を叩くのも軍の使命である。

問：この際朝鮮人のとるべき態度は？

答：朝鮮人は、朝鮮が戦争行為をもって独立するのでなく、まだ独立の成立もしていないということを深く自覚すべきである。現在のところ朝鮮は独立させてやろうという話だけで、具体的には何も決定していない。従って朝鮮の人々にとっては今が最も大切な秋である。何をなすべきかを慎重に考慮して掛からねばならぬ。早い話が、小さな店を一軒出すにしても十日や二十日では出来ないだろう。これと同様に朝鮮としても独立までには相当の過程と時日を要する。この創業の大切な時期に於いて内輪でごたごたしたり外国と事を構えたりする脱線では聯合軍の信意を失い、独立も不可能にならんとも限らない。

問：軍人の家族は引き揚げになったそうですね。

答：冗談いっては困る。一人も引き揚げてはいない。ただし古くから官舎に居残っていた出征軍人の遺家族は一部帰還させた。それは官舎の用途によるのだ。

問：内地人の心構えは？

答：以上の事態を心得ていたら慌てることもなかろう。急遽引き揚げばかり考えるのはどうかと思う。まさか朝鮮は独立と同時に日本に宣戦を布告するでもあるまい。もっとどっしりと落ち着いて大国民の襟度を示すべきである。こんなことでは世界から笑われるばかりだ。尤も内地人に不安を起させたのは二つの原因を挙げることが出来る。一つは朝鮮の不穏分子が日本人に危害を加えるだろうという流言が飛んだこと。しかし、これは前にも言った如く日本、聯合国ともに治安の確保にもっとも注意しているので心配はない。若しそんな不祥事が起ることがあれば厳重処断されるであろう。それも日本がやらなくとも進駐軍によって行われるであろう。もう一つは進駐軍が危害を加えるだろうということだが、これも列国監視の前でしかも停戦後に於いて暴行を加えられるものではない。米ソ軍は決して匪賊ではないのだ。

映画館の再開

二十五日から府内一斉

十五日から閉鎖していた府内の常設映画館は二十五日から一斉に開館する。内地でも有難き聖旨に副い国民生活の明朗化に一役買って映画演劇興行物など娯楽機関が二十五日から全国一斉に復古再開される。

大召喚発以来、業者側の自粛によって自発的に開演中止となっていた映画演劇寄席その他の興行物の再開については、内務省でもこの際、健全明朗な国民生活の再建の上から積極的な指導と育成を期し、その期日方法など具体案をねっていたが、情報局業者側と打合せの上、二十二日からこれら娯楽機関の再開を許可。その旨全国各関係方面に指令した。同時に上演時間の制限も一応撤廃され、夜間の興行も差支えないこととなった。

引き揚げを他所に

一坪園芸に希望の種播き

内地引き揚げのデマに驚いて一坪農園の蔬菜を急いで抜いているのではありません。時季の来た夏大根で今晩の食膳を飾り、その後にこの秋食る蕪や白菜を播付けている。人が二十一日黄金町の疎開跡にあった。

半島に来て三十年。家を建て、半島の知人もつくり、京城の街の美しく膨らみゆくことをわが家の栄えのごとく思って来た人々にとっては、きょうも京城の街はわが街であり、内地引き揚げなど旅人の言葉にしか聞こえなかった。敵空襲下に半島と一緒になって防空壕を掘ったのも、長い不自由な灯管をつづけて来たのも、みなこの美しい京城の街を愛し護るためだったからだったのである。停戦条約等の段階を踏んで朝鮮総督府が統治権を委譲するのは三ヶ月向うか、半年向うか判らないが、朝鮮がすこやかに新秩序のもとに踏み出して行く日、三十年半島を愛して来た人の心に変りはない。

『私は半島の新建設が遂げられても郷に帰る気持ちはありませんが、よし帰ったとしてもこの野菜は朝鮮の誰かが食べてくれるでしょう』鍬を持つ人は汗を拭う手の下でそう語りながら疎開後の蔬菜園に秋食う蕪を播付けるのである。

【写真＝黄金町にて】

  

A mere 3 days after surrender, liberated Koreans were already attempting to overthrow the colonial regime in Korea, alarming the Imperial Japanese Army who made this radio broadcast on August 18, 1945 to threaten military action against 'individuals harboring evil thoughts'

This is another fascinating historical article that I stumbled upon during my visit to the National Library of Korea a few months ago. This piece is a transcript of a nationally broadcast radio address made by the Imperial Japanese military authorities on August 18, 1945. This date is significant as it's just three days after Imperial Japan's unconditional surrender on August 15, 1945, which marked the end of World War II.

The surrender turned the Imperial Japanese colonial regime, which had ruled Korea from 1905 to 1945, into a 'lame duck' government. This period was one of uncertainty and transition, as the regime awaited the arrival of allied forces to assume control. It's worth noting that Soviet forces had already entered Korea by August 14, but American forces did not arrive until September 8.

Delving into the colonial newspaper Gyeongseong Ilbo from this 'lame duck' era offers a unique and intriguing perspective. It's like watching the implosion of the colonial regime in real-time. The public messaging undergoes a transformation, moving through stages of defiance, denial, minimization, bargaining, and acceptance as the regime grapples with its sudden loss of power.

One of the most striking aspects of this article is its revelation that Korean protesters were already actively attempting to overthrow the colonial regime just three days post-liberation. A key phrase, '鼎の軽重を問わる', plays a crucial role here. It literally translates to 'to disdain the ruler, to destroy him, and to attempt to take over the throne in his place'. For any Korean with advanced knowledge of Japanese, listening to this broadcast or reading this article would have been a clear indication that political control was slipping from the colonial regime's grasp.

Additionally, the article sheds light on the breakdown of public social order, highlighting instances of looting, rioting, and vandalism. The announcer implies that due to this chaos, Koreans could not be entrusted with freedom. This insight offers a rare and candid glimpse into the mindset of the colonial authorities during their final days in power.

I found this to be an incredibly enlightening read, offering a window into a pivotal moment in Korean history. I made the font of the second to the last paragraph very big, in keeping with the original article, which deliberately enlarged the font of those words for emphasis.

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) August 20, 1945

Rash Actions Lead To Great Losses

The Welfare of Asia Depends on the Efforts of Each Nationality

On the evening of August 18th, at 7:20 p.m., Mr. Nagaya, the head of the Press Department of the Korean Military Administration, made the following broadcast:

◇

Twenty-six million Koreans, I am wholeheartedly speaking to you now. With the Imperial edict of ceasefire having been issued, the situation in East Asia is at its most critical, requiring cooperation among all nations and ethnicities. However, looking at the situation in East Asia, what we see are reckless and impulsive actions, committing crimes such as attempting a nationalist overthrow of the government, likely due to the actions of individuals harboring evil thoughts. A military notice has been issued as a warning and reminder to all twenty-six million of you. It is heartening to see that wise and beloved Koreans understand this and are engaging in their occupations with a calm demeanor.

However, there are those driven by immediate ambitions, disrupting social order, seeking any possible way to make a personal profit, exploiting the tragic situation in East Asia to make big fortunes, or attempting to disrupt food supplies and damage or loot transportation and communication equipment, engaging in bandit-like activities. The Imperial Korean Armed Forces remain strong and vigilant. Those who still do not realize their wrongdoing and do not change their ways will inevitably face the use of military force, regardless of time and place, as clearly stated in last month’s military administration bureau announcement.

However, if there are still those who persist in their unprincipled conduct and engage in such evil deeds, it is imperative that the Korean people sternly admonish these actions amongst themselves, striving to ensure that such iniquity does not prevail, as I assert. The welfare of Asia can only be achieved through the efforts of all ethnicities. This is not something that can be concluded in a few days or months.

The concrete negotiations for the ceasefire treaty have not yet begun. Even after the treaty is concluded, all processes will only commence following the stipulated dates and procedures.

A historical union is being maintained between the Imperial Army, with its several hundred thousand Korean soldiers as His Majesty's loyal supporters who have shared an oath to live and die together, and the millions of Korean people in mainland Japan. Any disruption to the internal security of Korea, including any obstruction of transportation and communication, will result in the Korean people inflicting great suffering upon themselves, and there will be much to lose. As a consequence, it is clearer than seeing fire that such an ethnicity cannot be granted freedom. The attitude of the Imperial Korean Armed Forces towards this situation is fair, upright, and sincere, and its love for Korea is deeper and broader than any other army in the world.

This sentiment has not changed from the past to the present and will remain unchanged forever. I earnestly hope that especially every ethnic Japanese and Korean member of the ruling class will perceive this point clearly and bravely take the lead in handling the current situation.

*This was the broadcast of Mr. Nagaya, the head of the Press Department

[Transcription]

京城日報 1945年8月20日

妄動は大損失招く

亜細亜の福祉は各民族の努力

長屋朝鮮軍管区報道部長は十八日夜七時二十分から左の如き放送を行った。

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半島二千六百万諸君、私は情を尽くして唯今お話申し上げる為に停戦の御詔勅渙発あらせられ、今や東亜の事態は各国家、各民族の協同を要する事最も大切な時である。然るに東亜の状況をみますに、観るに発く軽挙妄動、民族鼎の軽重を問わるる如き罪悪を演じているのは、一部の不心得者の動きでありましょう。軍務布告を発して戒め注意を二千六百万各位に告げたのであります。賢明にして親愛なる半島の諸君は之を悟り冷静なる態度を以て各々生業に従事せられている事は感激に耐えざるところである。

然るに一党一派目前の野望に走り唯々社会秩序を乱し何事か私の利を獲得せんとしてか、東亜のこの悲境を奇貨とし或は食糧を遮断し、交通通信機器の破損または掠奪横領を企て治安を害せんとする匪賊的行為に出ずるものがある。朝鮮軍は厳として健在である。今にしてその非を悟らず苟くもその趣を改めずんば、時と場所を問わず断乎武力を行使するの止むなきは先月の軍務局発表によっても明瞭である。

然るに今尚唯々不逞の態度をなす悪行為に及ぶ者ありとすれば、よろしく半島諸君の間に於いて断乎其戒め以て非道なきよう努めねばならないと弁ずる。亜細亜の福祉は各民族の努力によって獲得し得るものであります。而して旬日月余を以て終るべきものではないのである。

停戦条約の具体的交渉は未だ開始されておりません。条約終了後と雖も妥結の日子と順序に従い、一切の処理は始めて着手せられるのである。

軍は半島出身兵数十万を陛下の股肱として同生共死の誓いを保有し、内地も亦数百万の半島人を擁して歴史的結合を持しているのである。半島内治安の妨害、交通通信等の阻害はこれらは半島人自ら自らを苦しめる結果となり、失うところ甚大なるものがある。結果に於いて、斯の如き民族には自由も与えられることなきは火を睹るよりも明瞭である。朝鮮軍の事態に臨む態度は公明正大真実朝鮮を愛するの情は世界の何れの軍隊よりも深くかつ広いのである。

昔より今日に至るも亦永久に此の情はかわらないのである。此の点を明察され、特に内鮮指導階級各位の沈勇にして率先の時局処理に挺身せられんことを望んでやまない。

長屋報道部長放送

Annie Ellers Bunker, American missionary who went from personal physician to Empress Myeongseong to thriving philanthropist in Colonial Korea, was praised in this 1938 Keijo Nippo obituary for endorsing the Imperial Japanese Army

This obituary from October 1938, published in Keijo Nippo newspaper, an organ of the Imperial Japanese colonial regime which ruled Korea from 1905 to 1945, features Annie Ellers Bunker, an American Methodist missionary and physician who spent around 50 years in Korea. This article sheds light on her remarkable journey, from being Empress Myeongseong's personal physician to her involvement in colonial Korea's society.

Annie Ellers Bunker

Born on August 31, 1860, and passing away on October 8, 1938 (exactly 43 years after the assassination of the Empress), Annie's life spanned significant historical events. Her role as the personal physician to Empress Myeongseong, especially leading up to the Empress's assassination in October 1895, granted her intimate access to the royal court. After the annexation of Korea by Imperial Japan, she seemed to prosper, raising thousands of yen to support various institutions including the Korean Young Women's Christian Association, Gongju Orphanage, Gongju M&A School, and Dongdaemun Women's Hospital. This indicates her significant influence in colonial Korea.

Interestingly, her last words before her death in 1938 were "I wish the Japanese Army will win soon and bring peace to the East", raising questions about her possible pro-Japanese sentiments, even during her time as the Empress's physician. Given her intimate access to the royal court at the time of the Empress's assassination, her documented pro-Japanese sentiments, and her subsequent successful career as a philanthropist in Korea under Imperial Japanese rule, it naturally raises a delicate question: could she have had any involvement or knowledge regarding the Imperial Japanese conspirators who assassinated the Empress? This is a matter left to historians to ponder, and it is not my intention to accuse Annie Ellers of any wrongdoing but to highlight the complexities and controversies surrounding her life.

Annie's closeness with Empress Myeongseong is further highlighted by an incident where, upon her marriage to Dalzell Bunker, the Empress demanded to see her wedding dress, examining it meticulously.

Annie's impact extended to nursing in Korea, being the first female medical missionary in the country. A Boston University Medical College student, she arrived in Korea in 1886, founded the Chungshin Girl’s School, and became a trailblazer in women's healthcare and education.

Annie Ellers Bunker as a young adult. (from Boston University website)

In 1938, the colonial authorities took over the Chungshin Girl's High School, which she founded, and converted it into a state-controlled school promoting State Shintoism and imposing the Japanese language.

Her first encounter with the Empress is vividly documented in her personal essay published in the Korean Repository, a journal for foreign Christian missionaries published between 1892 and 1899. This account provides a fascinating glimpse into her life and the complexities of her role in Korea. For the sake of improving accessibility, I have transcribed and posted the entire essay below, originally found in a PDF from the Korean Repository which is not OCR enabled.

Annie Ellers Bunker is now buried at the Yanghwajin Foreign Missionary Cemetery in Seoul, where her grave marker notes her 40 years of service as a missionary in Korea, until 1926.

This story is not just about the life of a missionary or a physician; it's about a woman whose life intersected crucial historical events, raising questions about her beliefs and the impact she had on Korean society.

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) October 12, 1938

The Grave of the Blue-Eyed Couple Guarding the Red Earth

• Fifty Years of Life on the Korean Peninsula
• Her Last Testament Praises the Imperial Army
• Pro-Japanese American Mrs. Bunker

The deceased Mrs. L. A. Bunker, who dedicated her life to social work on the Korean peninsula for fifty years, will have her funeral at the Chungdong Methodist Church at 10 am on the 12th at 13 Jeongdong-gil. Her last words, spoken to relatives and friends offering solemn prayers at her peaceful deathbed at 9 am on the 8th, were these: “I feel terribly sorry for the wounded Japanese soldiers on the battlefield. Why isn't the war over yet? I wish the Japanese Army will win soon and bring peace to the East.”

With a trembling hand, Mrs. Bunker took out the remaining hundred yen from her entire fortune, which she had dispersed for charitable causes, and requested it be used as a fund for the Japanese Red Cross. Then, she closed her eyes in peace. The words and actions of this foreign lady on her deathbed are being passed from mouth to mouth among friends, stirring deep emotion among the Japanese, Koreans, and foreigners in Seoul.

But who was Mrs. Bunker? Fifty years ago, she bravely came to Korea from her native America alone for missionary work. Fortunately, being a female doctor, she was warmly welcomed by the Korean government. At that time, there were hardly any Western medical facilities in Korea, so Mrs. Bunker, as a pioneer in Western medicine in Korea, dedicated herself and served for many years in the palace as the personal physician to the deceased Empress Myeongseong. After the annexation of Korea by Japan, she focused on missionary and charitable work for thirty years, contributing thousands of yen to various institutions such as the Korean Young Women's Christian Association, Gongju Orphanage, Gongju M&A School, and Dongdaemun Women's Hospital, dedicating her life to social work in Korea for fifty years. Five years ago, her husband Dr. Bunker died while she was on holiday in America. Her husband was so pro-Japanese that he requested in his will to have his remains moved to Korea. Mrs. Bunker, too, will be buried in the beloved Korean soil alongside her husband. [Photo: Mrs. Bunker]

[Transcription]

京城日報 1938年10月12日

赭土を護る碧眼夫婦塚

• 半島生活五十年
• 遺言に讃う皇軍
• 親日の米人バンカー夫人

五十年間半島の社会事業に一生を捧げ、十二日朝十時貞洞町監理教教会で葬式が行われる貞洞町一三故レ・エ・バンカー夫人が去る八日朝九時、静かな臨終の病床で厳粛な祈祷を捧げる親戚友人等に遺して去った最後の言葉はこれだ。

「戦場に傷ついた日本軍人が気の毒でならない。まだ戦争が終らないのか。早く日本軍が勝って東洋に平和が来て欲しい」と夫人は微かに震える手で慈善事業のために全財産をばらまいて残った百円を取り出し日本赤十字事業資金にしてくれと依頼した後、安心したように目を閉じた。死の床に於ける一外人夫人のこの言葉と行為は友人の口から口へ伝わって在城の内鮮外人を問わず感激の話題となっているが、このバンカー夫人はどんな人であったか。

今から五十年前、夫人は故国アメリカから単身宣教のため、勇敢にも朝鮮に飛び込んだ。幸いに夫人は女医でもあったので韓国政府は喜んで厚く迎えた。当時朝鮮はおろか洋医薬の施設は殆どなかった時代なので、夫人は朝鮮に洋医術を済した草分けとして献身的な努力をなし選ばれて故閔妃の侍医として多年宮中に仕えた。日韓併合後は三十年この方布教の外に慈善事業に専念し、朝鮮女子青年会、公州託児所、公州エムエー学校、東大門夫人病院などには何れも数千円の寄付金をおくるなど五十年一生の朝鮮社会事業のために尽くして来た。五年前アメリカへ休暇帰国中図らずも死んだ夫のバンカー博士も遺言によって遺骨を朝鮮に移葬した程の親日家で、夫人も夫君と並んでなつかしい朝鮮の土に葬られることになっている。【写真＝バンカー夫人】

Source: https://archive.org/details/kjnp-1938-10-12/page/n9/mode/1up

[The Korean Repository, October 1895, pp. 373-375.]

My First Visit to Her Majesty, The Queen

During the visit of Mrs. H. G. Underwood and myself to Her Majesty on the 14th of September we saw the Queen Dowager and she gave us each a handsome gold-embroidered chumoncy or purse-Our visit to Her Royal Highness was in the same place where some years ago I went to see the Queen. Many changes have come since then and the Queen now lives in a new building, beautifully lighted with electricity, in another part of the grounds.

It is just nine years ago this fall since I was first, in company with Dr. H. N. Allen the King's physician, called to visit, Her Majesty, the Queen. She had been ill for some time and they had sent to Dr. Allen for medicines. As there was no improvement in her condition the Doctor assured them, that, in order to treat Her Majesty properly, she must be examined, and so the writer was called.

It was a lovely autumn day, when in the early afternoon, we started for the Palace in our sedan chairs, with our keysos (soldiers) running ahead and clearing the way. My heart was thumping vigorously and I wondered how I would be received, half fearing the ordeal.

On our arrival at the outer side-gate of the palace wall, we had to get out of our chairs and walk quite a distance, about a quarter of a mile, I should judge, to the Reception Hall. As we neared the place we were met by Prince Min Young Ik whom I had met, and who, having travelled much, knew something of the customs of foreigners.

He showed us some of the beauties of the palace grounds and after our walk around the artificial lake, he escorted us to the waiting-room and there had us served with foreign food, Korean fruit and nuts.

Soon a messenger dressed in court costume came for me and, Prince Min accompanying me, we started for the Audience Hall. We first crossed a large open court, which I noticed had large potted plants around three sides of it but not a spear of grass growing in it anywhere. Ascending a flight of broad stone steps, crossing the narrow verandah and stepping over a high door sill, I found that we were at one end of a long, wide hall, the floors of which were covered with the soft, beautiful, figured Korean matting which is such a fine article and so hard to obtain. At the farther end of the hall, I saw a large number of Koreans, men, women, and young girls. I made my three bows as I advanced and then found myself in front of the company among whom I soon singled out Her Majesty and for the rest of that visit I had eyes for no one but her. In later visits I learned to distinguish the gentlemen from the eunuchs, and also the ladies-in-waiting by their peculiar head-gear and their fine skirts of silk gauze. The immense chignons worn by these ladies are objects of wonder not only as to size but also as to how the intricate windings and braidings of the glossy strands is accomplished. One evening while witnessing some of the delightful and peculiar posture-dancing done by the dancing girls at the palace, I asked one of them if her chignon was not heavy - "Oh, said she, it is very heavy and makes my head ache." These head dressings vary in shape; sometimes they are long and narrow and then again they have large lateral loops.

The Queen, beautifully dressed in silk gauze skirts, with strings of pearls in her raven locks, a lady, short of stature, with white skin black eyes and black hair, greeted me most pleasantly. She had on no enormous head dress but only her own glistening locks twisted in a most becoming know low down on her neck. She wears on the top of her forehead her Korean insignia of rank. All the ladies of the nobility wear a similar decoration but of inferior quality and workmanship. To me the face of the Queen especially when she smiles, is full of beauty. She is a superior woman and she impressed one as having a strong will and great force of character, with much kindliness of heart. I have always received the kindest words and treatment from her and I have much admiration and great respect for her. After first asking if I were well, how old I was, how my parents were, if I had brothers and sisters and how they were, she proceeded to tell me that they had been told by Dr. Allen of my arrival in Korea, that she was much pleased at my coming and hoped I would like the country. All of this conversation was carried on through an interpreter who stood, with his body bent double, back of a door where he could hear but not see.

Prince Min, who had been standing by, now had a chair brought for me and I noticed that back of Her Majesty there was a foreign couch. The Queen telling me to be seated sat down on this couch and then the medical part of the interview began.

I had noticed that two gentlemen had seated themselves when the Queen sat and when I got up to leave, they with Her Majesty rose and returned my bows.

Prince Min conducted me back to the waiting room and there I waited for Dr. Allen who was having an audience with His Majesty. When he returned I learned from him that both the King and Crown Prince had been present during my interview. I was very glad that I had not known who the two gentlemen were, for I fear my composure would not have been even such at it was. After being served with more food and fruit we were each given a certain number of soldiers to accompany us home and also, as it was dark, lantern bearers. The sight of the Korean lantern with its outer covering of red and green silk gauze is very picturesque and as we passed, many a dusky head peeped out through opened doors and windows to see what it all meant. The empty dark streets with the dark low houses on either side, the lantern bearers of the Doctor's chair and of mine with the attendant soldiers, carrying their rifles made a picture at once interesting and unique. In recent visits we are permitted to go through the large front gate into the grounds and right up to the waiting room door. Upon arriving here tea, coffee, and fruit are served and then we are called in to Her Majesty, who receives us in one of the smaller private appartments. The King and Crown Prince are always present. After the interview we are permitted to proceed home immediately.

Annie Ellers Bunker

Ms. B.F. Starkey, blue-eyed American missionary featured in 1938 Keijo Nippo as a pro-Imperial model foreigner inspired by Japanese-Korean Unification policy to join the Patriotic Women’s Association in Seoul

This 1938 article is a historical account in a colonial propaganda newspaper about Ms. B.F. Starkey, an American missionary in Korea during the Japanese colonial period who devoted decades of her life in Imperial Japan in various charitable activities.

Her decision to cooperate with the colonial regime starkly contrasts with fellow American missionary George McCune's decision in 1935 to refuse to perform State Shinto worship rituals, for which he was forced by the colonial authorities to leave Korea. The fact that Ms. Starkey was able to continue to operate in Korea in 1938 probably means that she decided to go along with performing the State Shinto rituals, including the mandatory 7 am Kyujo Yohai prayers, even though it was against her Christian beliefs. In any case, she probably would not have been able to stay in Korea past 1942, when Americans who still remained in Imperial Japan were detained and deported.

This is the second Keijo Nippo newspaper article that I found featuring a blue-eyed woman. The other one featured a blue-eyed Russian Tatar woman, Shamseinoor Berikova, who was a member of the National Women's Defense Association (NWDA), which was similar but distinct from the Patriotic Women's Association (PWA) to which Ms. Starkey belonged. Historically, the elite wealthy and powerful women tended to join the PWA, while the NWDA had a much closer connection with the Imperial Japanese military and had a broader membership. The two organizations subsequently merged in 1942.

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) July 2, 1938

A blue-eyed woman with a Patriotic Women's Association Sash

Courageous words of Ms. Starkey: "I also want to help out Japan on the home front!"

Moved by the spirited march of Koreans working for the war effort under the policy of Japanese-Korean Unification, a blue-eyed foreign woman was inspired and said, 'Please let me join in these duties on the home front.' Recently, she applied to join the Patriotic Women's Association at its third branch in Takezoe-chō (present-day Chungjeong-no), Seoul, delighting the leaders and members of the group who received her unusual membership application for the first time. The heroine of this story, Ms. B.F. Starkey, an American residing at 3-30 Takezoe-chō, Seoul, has now proudly become a member of the Patriotic Women's Association. At 56 years old, she joins Japanese and Korean members in comforting families of conscripts, collecting national defense funds, and impressing the community with her passionate efforts, dressed in the Association's uniform of a white apron and a purple sash.

Twenty-eight years ago, in 1910, Ms. Starkey landed in Nagasaki as a Methodist missionary in Japan, the land of poetry. Immediately struck by Japan's picturesque landscapes and warm people, she decided to dedicate her life to this country. Ever since then, for twenty-eight years, she has continued to live in this land, true to her initial resolve, dedicating her life to missionary work and cultural pursuits out of her love for Japan. She has nurtured young men and women who gathered around her, drawn to her pure character, as if they were her own children. She has earnestly lead English language clubs and student Bible classes every evening at her home without pay, and opened her garden as a playground for local children to give some relief to their families.

Dedicated to cultural advancement and community service, she also runs a female-only 'private convent,' Shion Dormitory, in the second floor of her house. With open arms, she welcomes young unmarried women who left their families as well as young girls in need of guidance who approach her for answers and salvation, continuing to selflessly devote herself in helping them awaken from misguided dreams through a pure lifestyle at the dormitory. Currently, 13 girls enjoy a pleasant life there, and she has already sent many well-cultured women into society as respectable wives.

Ms. Starkey's high regard as a saintly figure and her membership in the Patriotic Women's Association have sparked usual delight among foreigners living in Seoul, and that is expected to inspire a surge of membership among pro-Japanese foreigners. When visited at her home, she humbly commented, 'I am only doing what is natural,' and made only brief remarks without continuing further. [The photo is of blue-eyed Ms. Starkey]

[Transcription]

京城日報 1938年7月2日

碧い眼に愛婦の襷

”わたしも日本の銃後に”と勇み参じたスターキー女史

内鮮一体で行進する半島銃後の雄々しい姿に感激した碧眼の一外国婦人が「私もこの銃後の勤めに参加させて下さい」とこの程。

☆．．．愛国婦人会

京城竹添町第三分館に入会を求めて来り京城で初めてのこの珍しい入会申込を受けた何団の幹部初め会員一問をいたく喜ばせた。話題のヒロインは府内竹添町三の三〇アメリカ人ビー・エフ・スターキー女子（五六）で晴れて愛婦会員となった。女子は白いエプロンに紫襷の愛婦会服で内鮮人会員と共に応召家族の慰問に、国防金の募集に、健気な奮闘を続け町内を感激させている。

女史は今から二十八年前の一九一〇年メソジスト教会宣教師として長崎に上陸。直ちに詩の国日本の美しい景色と人情に打たれてこの国に骨を埋めようと決心し、以来二十八年間、最初の決心通りこの地で布教のために、文化のために日本を愛する生活を続けて来た。女史の清い人格を慕って集まる若い男女を彼女はわが子のように世話し、また英語クラブ、学生バイブル・クラス等を自宅に設けて毎晩熱心に、しかも無報酬で指導するほか、庭園には子供の遊園地を設けて附近の子供等のために家族を解放するなど。

文化向上と社会奉仕に犠牲的努力を続けているが、更に同家二階に設置経営する男子禁断の「私設修道院」紫苑寮で家庭を離れた若い独身女、或は悩み迷う若い娘で女史に解決や救いを求めて来るものがあれば両手をひろげて迎え入れこの寮における清い生活によって間違った夢から醒めしめることに献身的努力を続けて来ている。現在この寮で楽しい生活を送っている娘は十三名。既に修養を積み立派な人妻として世話に送り出したものが数十名にのぼっている。

この聖女のほまれ高いスターキー嬢の愛婦人会は在城外人間には異様な感激を与え親日外人同志等の入会者続出が予想されている。自宅に女史を訪えば「妾はただ当たり前のことをしているだけです」と続かんで多くを語らなかった（写真は青眼スターキーさん）

Source: https://archive.org/details/kjnp-1938-07-02/page/n10/mode/1up