Imperial Japan had postwar plans to quadruple Japanese settlers in Korea to dominate the most technologically intensive industries, and suppress Korean access to higher education to quell 'dissatisfaction' (June 1943)

I recently came across two intriguing news articles from the Japanese colonial period of Korean history that shed light on the intricacies of the colonial government's decision-making process. The goal was clear: they aimed to increase the number of ethnic Japanese people in Korea from 700,000 to a whopping 4 million to solidify Imperial Japan's colonial control over Korea. However, their approach to achieving this was not without its contradictions.

While the officials wished to increase the number of college-educated Koreans to boost industrial production, they were wary of producing too many. An oversaturated job market could lead to a surge of unemployed college graduates, sparking potential discontent.

Simultaneously, the resettlement of educated Japanese into Korea was to provide staffing for the newly developed industries. Yet, they had to strike a balance as overpopulation of these industries could have led to staffing shortages back in Japan.

Furthermore, they faced a dichotomy in their approach to supporting businesses. On one side, there was a desire to extend aid to existing small and medium-sized businesses to ensure their survival (maintenance and nurturing), and on the other side, resources were to be expended to usher in new businesses (expansion).

The postwar immigration policy of the colonial regime, as discussed in these articles, would have seen the settlement of over 3 million additional Japanese people into Korea. Most would have been employed in the most technologically intensive industries, and a significant number of Japanese farmers would have settled in the Korean countryside. Consequently, educational opportunities and job prospects would have been far more limited for Koreans than for the Japanese settlers, exacerbating existing ethnic inequality and discrimination.

What is both revealing and disturbing is that the phrase 'treated as Koreans' from the text was indicative of mistreatment. This phrase underlines the generalized notion that Koreans were not treated well, and surprisingly, colonial officials openly admitted to this discrimination happening in Japan.

Interestingly, there are also depictions of Korean cultural practices, such as upper-class Koreans not smoking unless elders permit them to, not using the term 'goodbye,' and subordinates speaking to superiors while standing over them. As someone not intimately familiar with these traditions, I would love to hear from our Korean members about the accuracy of these descriptions.

I'm sharing these articles to provide some context to the complex dynamics of the colonial period and invite thoughtful conversation. As always, let's keep exploring these issues.

Panelists from the colonial government in the roundtable discussion

(Translation)

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) June 19, 1943

A real look into the Korean Peninsula at war

Roundtable discussion with executives at the Interior Ministry of the Governor-General's Office (Part 5)

Take care to understand the differences in the customs of the upper-class households

Kōtaki Motoi, Director of the Production Bureau: In Korea, too, there are polite individuals in irritating households that have been brought up in Confucianism for generations. In such households, family members refrain from smoke in front of their elders. Unless explicitly given permission by their parents, children wouldn't even dare smoke if offered cigarettes as guests. It seems such strict manners are prevalent in the upper-class households of Korea. But such customs do not permeate the entire society. Furthermore, these customs can be strikingly different from those practiced in mainland Japan. For instance, in my household, I employ a maidservant who, according to Korean etiquette, stands and speaks even when the master is sitting. In other words, the maidservant stands up to speak while looming over her master. After speaking, she kneels down, places her hands on the floor, and then leaves without uttering a goodbye, because it is deemed inappropriate to sit together with the master. It is strange, but a simple phrase like "goodbye" do not exist. When the conversation ends, Koreans just bow silently and leave.

Nakai Kazuo, a member of the Interior Ministry and the Parliament: Evidently, the cultural differences are immense.

Shiota Seikō, Director of Department of Rural Villages: As Nakai-san previously pointed out, there is a prevalent belief that uneducated Koreans tend to migrate to mainland Japan, creating negative sentiments among the Japanese. However, this is not entirely true. Many educated Koreans also move to mainland Japan. However, when Koreans go to mainland Japan, they are generally treated as Koreans. Then, when those Koreans return to Korea, they tell others that mainland Japanese are extremely outrageous and have a sense of superiority. That is why we need to distinguish between the good ones and the bad ones.

Mr. Nakai: Speaking candidly about the student problem, I think it may be necessary to dissuade Korean youth from attending specialized schools or higher, such as law schools. Especially now, competition is fierce since many people want to enter specialized schools or higher in mainland Japan. One must be very competent to be able to enter such schools, but the problem is what happens after graduation. For example, it's quite difficult to be hired as a public servant regardless of whether you are Korean or Japanese. Dissatisfaction arises. Receiving a higher education may cause mental distress, and I think it may lead to very negative outcomes.

Director Shiota: Even if those with aspirations in technical fields go to schools in mainland Japan and acquire skills, when they return to Korea, there is a delicate issue in that the factories and mines in Korea are unable to accommodate them all.

Mr. Nakai: In fact, even in mainland Japan, we are now saying, "Close down the specialized schools or higher that are not directly useful for this war". The trend is moving in that direction. Ideologically, I think it would be good to strongly recommend a vocational education to our Korean compatriots as much as possible. Before, I thought that it would be good to have the Koreans work in the fields of science and engineering and have Korea be developed mainly by the hands of Koreans. But hearing your story, Director Shiota, it appears that the situation isn't that simple.

Yamana Mikio, Chief of the Documentation Division: We are focusing on giving the Koreans a practical education in junior high schools and below.

Morita Masayoshi, member of the Interior Ministry: There are 700,000 mainland Japanese and 24 million Korean people. Therefore, the 700,000 will have to lead the 24 million, but I think this number is small. Some people say that there must be at least 4 million mainland Japanese people on the Korean peninsula. Then, what are the strategies for increasing this number, and how should we proceed?

Mr. Nakai: I would like to approach this issue from the following perspective. The main theme of this provisional conference is enterprise reinforcement and production increase, with a particular focus on resolving the food shortage problem. I would like to further explore the relationship between enterprise reinforcement, the Governor-General's Office, and its impact on the Korean peninsula, before proceeding to tackle the current problem...

Director Kōtaki: In Korea, there are no enterprises similar to those in mainland Japan, either currently or under planning. That is what I meant when I said earlier that Korea is still a child. Therefore, we are not considering tackling the issues that mainland Japan is thinking about in a big way. Labor issues are being seriously considered, but the primary labor sources in Korea have traditionally been the rural areas. Small and medium-sized businesses in Korea are not primary labor sources, and they are something that we need to advance from now on. But even if we try to reinforce the small and medium-sized businesses in Korea now, I don't think that it will have much effect. Instead, we must expand the businesses, depending on what they are. Accordingly, the maintenance and nurturing of small and medium-sized businesses in Korea is what we have been doing so far.

Mainland Japan has alternated between the maintenance and nurturing phase and the reorganization phase, and as it enters the decisive stage of this great war, it is about to actively enter a reinforcement phase. In contrast, Korea has consistently been in the maintenance and nurturing phase from beginning to end, as the Governor-General's Office says, but actual problems cannot be solved this way. A growing sentiment of discontent is emerging. (to be continued...)

Welcoming the Desired Excellence in Technology, Immigration of Mainland Japanese Farmers also Welcome (June 20)

Director Kōtaki: One of the compelling reasons for maintaining and nurturing small and medium-sized businesses in Korea is that the relatively large population of mainland Japanese people who come to Korea is engaged in such industries. We can't easily rationalize and consolidate these, so we have been focusing on maintaining and nurturing them as before. However, this cannot continue indefinitely. For example, if the textile industry in mainland Japan is developed, then the flow of people from mainland Japan to Korea will drastically decrease. There is also a large proportion of mainland Japanese people involved in wholesaling. As the products handled by the wholesalers gradually decrease, there are concerns about wholesaling businesses imploding in various areas.

The production of daily necessities sold in Korea is still very scarce in Korea. We are heavily reliant on production in Osaka and other places in mainland Japan. If production in mainland Japan can't keep up, then products will become even scarcer in Korea. At this stage, we are backed into a corner, so we need to do something and take some measures to support small and medium-sized businesses. That's why we are preparing this budget. I can't say that it's the same for the whole industry, but as you know, the production of daily necessities is not enough today. We have aimed to make Korea an Asian continental military base. We consider this our mission, and in some respects, we are proud of it. In that sense, even small businesses in Korea will be run by mainland Japanese people. In the future, the lives of Koreans will become more Japanized, and the consumer goods consumed by mainland Japanese people and Korean people will become the same. Naturally, since there are transportation difficulties in sending daily necessities to the Asian continent, such as Northern China, Manchuria, or small places like Kwantung Leased Territory, we want each place to be self-sufficient. That's why we want Korea to supply itself with everything on a comprehensive basis. From that point of view, the time for reorganization has not yet come, and a considerable number of industries have already relocated here from mainland Japan due to the urgent need in Korea. I think there are more than 200 firms that have already relocated here, but I think we still have to grow more. However, even if we manage to find the funds and labor necessary for growth, the raw materials cannot be readily procured from mainland Japan. That's why we have to produce such raw materials in Korea.

Creating new factories will inevitably lead to idle facilities. However, it is also necessary use this opportunity to bring excellent technology from mainland Japan to Korea to make it a supply base for the Asian continent. Integration with excellent technology will be good for the businesses themselves. So it's not that we don't have to reorganize the industry at all. It's just that I think that we still need to keep encouraging small and medium-sized businesses.

Mr. Morita: So, in conclusion, it's going to be difficult to increase the number mainland Japanese people in Korea, who currently number 700,000?

Director Kōtaki: It's difficult, but if possible, I want to bring excellent technology to Korea. Electrochemical industries and light metal industries are going to expand rapidly. By having everyone from middle-level technicians, public servants, high-level technicians to lower-level leaders come in from mainland Japan, I think the overall technology level of Korea will improve, so I think we need to continue to bring in more people.

Also in rural areas, it would be very good if we could settle more mainland Japanese people, but since the situation now is such that Korean youths are helping out with farming in mainland Japan, I think it may be difficult.

Director Shiota: Having farmers from mainland Japan come here for the expansion and improvement of agricultural productivity would be very good. Such models exist here and there. For instance, it has been over ten years since about one hundred graduates from Katō Kanji's higher elementary school settled in the area along the route from Seoul to Wonsan. Furthermore, about one hundred and fifty children are currently attending the higher elementary school. These people truly embody the spirit of hard work. They built their own fancy homes, apparently made of brick, by employing Chinese laborers while they themselves also worked and earned wages. Even the Chinese laborers were astounded and claimed that they were more skilled than themselves. [laughter] They are farmers who have a very developed hard working spirit.

There's another instance of two brothers who received the same education and settled in a deserted mountain near Mount Kongō. Initially, when they started planting deciduous pine trees and corn on the mountain, the Korean people mocked them, questioning what could be achieved in such a place. However, nowadays, everyone is following their example and planting corn. Models like these exist in various places. The worst are the so-called 'haori peasants' who act like landlords and employ laborers for farming. They even buy their vegetables from the Chinese, so some of them are gradually becoming unsuccessful.

In Korea, there are quite a few immigrants who came through the Oriental Development Company, some of whom have been successful, while others have not. To name some recent outstanding cases, people from mainland Japan are coming to Korea and growing sweet potatoes. We thought the best yield in Korea would be about 200 kan [750 kg] per tan [~0.25 acre, ~0.1 hectare], but there are places in Gongju where the yield is 960 kan [3,600 kg]. Surrounding areas have all turned to sweet potato farming, and Chungcheongnam-do's sweet potato seedlings are in high demand. I believe that it's better to bring in one mainland Japanese farmer to Korea than to bring in ten mainland Japanese technicians. That's why I'm trying to bring in about 50 families of mainland Japanese farmers who have received an education like Katō Kanji's, but with the current situation, many farmers find it increasingly difficult to live in Korea and are leaving. There are various reasons, but young men are increasingly being drafted and dying in the war. If they stay in mainland Japan, relatives can somehow lend a hand, but here in Korea, there's nothing they can do, so some of them return to mainland Japan. Regardless of whether bringing in young, vigorous individuals from mainland Japan would work or not, there is a considerable demand for mainland Japanese farmers to settle in Korean rural areas.

I recently visited a place where there were eight households of mainland Japanese farmers, nine of whom had soldiers who were conscripted for war. In one household, a 16-year-old child was all alone, making a seedbed. In one irrigation association district, it seems everyone is trying to help in various ways, but it still seems daunting. Even though good farmers have come, there's no way to retain them. There is nothing better than to bring in mainland Japanese farmers, because it's certain that things will improve this way. (to be continued...)

(Transcription)

京城日報　1943年6月19日

決戦半島の真姿

内務省委員総督府幹部対談会（5）

上流家庭では厳格理解せよ、習慣の違い

上瀧基、殖産局長：朝鮮でも先祖代々儒教で育ったやかましい家には行儀正しいものもある。そういう家では例えば目上の人の前で煙草は喫まない。親子で来た客などに煙草をすすめても親が喫めといわない限りは喫まない。朝鮮でも上流家庭ではそういう厳格な作法があるようだ。ところが一般社会にそういうことはない。もう一つは若しそういう厳格なものがあったとしても、それが内地の場合と全然正反対なことがある。例えば私の家に女中を使っているが、朝鮮の流儀から言うと主人が坐っている時でも女中は立ったまま物を言うことが礼儀で、目上の人には立ちはだかって物を言う。手をついて『さようなら』を言わずにすっと立ち上がって言う。主人と同座ではいけないということなのだ。それから妙なことであるが、『さようなら』というような簡単な言葉がない。話がきれると、だまってお辞儀して帰ってしまう。

中井一夫・内務省委員・衆議院議員：非常に違ったところがあるのですね。

塩田正洪、農村局長：先程中井さんの仰有ったことの中に、内地にどうも教養の低い者が来るので内地人としてもいい感情が湧かんというお話であったが、実際は相当に教養のある者もいるわけである。ところが内地に行ってみると、一概に朝鮮人として扱われる。そこで今度は朝鮮に帰って来た連中は、どうも内地人は優越感を持っていて不埒千万だというようなことにもなる。いい分子と悪い分子との見さかいをつけて頂くことが必要だ。

中井氏：学生問題に就いて率直に言うと、私は朝鮮の青年を余り専門学校以上の法科というような学校にはやらないように仕向けることも必要ではないかと思う。殊に今は内地でも専門学校以上の学校には入学志願者が殺到していて非常な競争である。それに来て入学出来るというのは余程出来る人に違いないけれども、卒業後のことが一つの悩みである。例えば官公吏の採用問題でも、内鮮人を問わず余程困難だ。そこに不平が起る。高い養育を受けたために却って精神的な煩悶を来すということになって、非常に悪い結果を齎すようなことにもなると思う。

塩田局長：技術者方面でも志を立てて内地の学校に行って技術を修得していざ朝鮮に帰って来ても、工場鉱山では全部収容の余地がないとそこにデリケートな問題があるわけである。

中井氏：実は、私共は今内地でも『この戦争に直接役立たない学校なんか専門学校以上のものは閉鎖して了え』と言っている。機運は大分そういう風に動いている。思想的ないろんな関係から見ても、半島同胞には出来るだけ職業教育を大いに推奨することがいいのではないかと思う。そうして理工科方面をやらせて朝鮮の開発は大いに半島同胞の手でやらすということがいいのではないかと思っておったのであるが、塩田さんのお話を聞くとそれも簡単には行かないわけですね。

山名酒喜男、文書課長：中等学校以下は実業教育一点張りでやっている。

森田正義、内務省委員：内地人七十万、半島人二千四百万、そうすると七十万が二千四百万を指導して行かなければならぬことになるが、これでは数が少ないと思う。或る人は少なくとも半島に四百万の内地人はいなければならんといっている。そうすると、これを殖やす方法及び持ってゆき方について何か対策は．．．

中井氏：その問題に就いては私はこういう所から承りたいと思う。それは今度の臨時議会の主題は企業整備及び生産力増強、殊に食糧問題の解決ということが重点であるから、企業整備と朝鮮総督府との関係、どういう影響が半島に及ぶかという問題をお聴きして、それから今の問題にはいって頂いたらどうかと思うが．．．

上瀧局長：朝鮮としては、内地が現にやるし、これからやらんとするような企業がまだない。それがつまり先刻申しました朝鮮がまだ子供だということである。であるから内地が考えておるような問題は大きく取り上げるということは考えていない。労力の問題が真剣に取り上げられて来ているが、従来朝鮮の労力の源泉は農村にある。朝鮮に於ける中小商工業は労力の源泉とはならず、寧ろこれから進めて行かなければならない。そういうものを今整備してみたところで、大して効果はないと思う。ものに依ってはもっと拡充しなければならん。したがって朝鮮に於ける中小商工業は維持育成であるということで今日まで来ておるわけである。

内地は或る時には維持育成、或る時には整理統合ということで来て、結局この大戦争の決戦段階に入って積極的に整備ということが取り上げられて来ているが、朝鮮は終始一貫維持育成で来ているところで実情はどうかと言うと、総督府は維持育成というが現実の問題はそれで済まない。我々をどうして呉れるのだという気持ちが出て来ている。（つづく）

欲しい優秀な技術、内地農家の移住も歓迎（6月20日）

上瀧局長：朝鮮で中小商工業の維持育成という一つの有力な理由としては、朝鮮に来ている内地人の比較的多い階層は中小商工業であるが、これをうかつなことで整理統合ということは出来ないので、従来之等に維持育成という方面に努力して来たのであるが、現状はいつまでもそれでは行けない。例えば内地で繊維産業が整備されて行くとすれば、今まで内地から朝鮮にはいっていたものがどんどん減る。卸に就いては相当内地人方面が多い。だんだん取り扱う商品が減って来るにしたがって自滅するのではないかと心配を各方面でしている。

朝鮮で販売されておる日常生活必需品の生産はまだまだ朝鮮では非常に少ない。大阪その他に多く依存している。それが内地でも足らなくなると朝鮮では益々少なくなって行く。こういう状態にある中小商工業に対して何等かの対策をとらなければならぬという追いつめられた段階に立って、なんとかしなければならないというので、そういう予算も出すことになっている。工業に就いても同じだとは言えぬが、生活必要品の製造業は御承知のように今日とても足らない。朝鮮はかねてから大陸兵站基地ということを目標にして、我々もそれを自任し、或る面に於いては自負して来ておる。そういった意味から朝鮮の小さいものでもそれが内地人の事業であり、また今後益々朝鮮人の生活は内地化され、内鮮人間の消費物資が共通して来るようになると自然、大陸方面に対してどうしても出したい生活必需品は北支、満州、或いは小さくいって関東州というような所でも、輸送の困難というようなことから、それぞれ自給自足をはかりたいということであるが、朝鮮としては、一歩出て全般的に何とかして供給したいという考えを持っている。そういう点からまだまだ整理の機会に至らず、そういった朝鮮の差し迫った必要からして既に内地から移駐して来た工業は相当の数になっている。二百以上もあるだろうと思う。しかしまだまだ殖やして行かなければならんと思う。しかし殖やすについてはそれ等に必要な資金とか労力は何とかするとしても、原材料は中中内地からは来ない。だから朝鮮でそういう原材料を生産して行かなければならない。

新しい工場をどんどん造ると遊休設備が出来ることになる。しかしこういう機会にこそ内地の優秀技術を朝鮮に入れて大陸の供給基地たらしめるということも必要である。技術のなってないものは優秀な技術に統合して行けば事業自体にもいい。だから工業の面でも全然整理しなくていいというのではないが、大体中小工業というようなものは、やはり奨励して行かなければならんじゃないかと考えている。

森田氏：そうすると結論として七十万の内地人を殖やすということは、中々難しいということになりますか。

上瀧局長：難しいのですが、出来れば優秀な技術を朝鮮に持って来たい。電気化学工業とか軽金属工業というようなものは、これからどんどん拡充されて行くわけで、そういう所の中堅技術者、公務員、ずっと上の高級技術者から下の方の幹部職工といったようなところまで、内地からどんどんはいって来ることに依って朝鮮全般の技術の程度も向上すると思うから、そういう方面にまだまだ入れなければならんと思う。

それから農村に於いても農村に内地人を植え付けるということは出来れば非常にいいことであるが、朝鮮の青年が内地に手伝いに行っている位であるから、これは言うべくして中々難しいと思う。

塩田局長：農業生産力の拡充増強に内地の農家が居ることは非常にいい。そういうモデルが方々にある。例えば京城から元山に行く途中に加藤完治さんの高等国民学校を出たのが百戸ばかり来ているが、もう十年以上になる。それからもう百五十人位子供が国民学校に通っている。これなんぞ本当に勤労精神の体得者で、自分達だけで家を造った、煉瓦造りみたようなしゃれた家ですが、それを支那人に請け負わして労力は自分達が雇われて行って人夫賃を貰った。さすがの支那人も舌を巻いて、我等よりうわ手だと言った（笑い声）それ位に勤労精神の発達した農民である。

もう一つはやはりそれと同じ教育を受けた者で、金剛山の近くで荒れた山に入った兄弟がある。最初は山に落葉松を植えたり玉蜀黍を植えたりしていると、それを見て朝鮮人が、「あんなところに何が出来るか」と言って嘲笑っていた。ところが近頃はみんなそれに倣って玉蜀黍を植えたりしている。そういうモデルは方々にある。一番いけないのは羽織百姓というやつで、地主気取りで労働者を使って農業をする。野菜も支那人から買うというようなので、だんだんいけなくなったのもある。

朝鮮では東拓の手を介して来た移民が相当にあるが、成功したのもあり、成功しないものもある。また極めく最近の例では内地人で朝鮮に来て薩摩藷作りをやっているのである。我々も朝鮮ではせいぜい反当り二百貫位がいいところだと思っていたが、公州で九百六十貫を挙げている所がある。その周囲は皆藷作りになって、忠南の藷の苗を一手に出しているが、そこで私は考える。技術者が十人居るよりも一人の農家を朝鮮に入れた方がいい。それで今加藤完治さんあたりの教育を受けた内地農家を五十戸位入れたいと思ってやっているが、こういう時勢になってだんだん住み難くくなって朝鮮を退散する農家が多くなった。いろんな事情もあるが、だんだん若い者は壮丁に取られて、戦死をしたというようなことになると、内地に居れば親族縁達が何とか手伝ってもくれるが、ここではどうにもならんというので帰るのもある。若盛りの者を内地から連れて来てうまく行くかどうか、朝鮮の農村でも内地農家を入れて貰いたいという声は相当にある。

この間に行った所では、内地農家が八戸あって、そこから九人も出征しておる。その中の一軒では誰もいないので十六になる子供が一人で苗床を作ってやっていた。水利組合地区でみんなで色々面倒を見ているらしいが、しかしそういうことでは心細いらしい。折角いい農家が来ても、それを足止めする方法がない。内地農家を入れるに越したことはない。必ずよくなるに決まっているのだから（つづく）

Source 1: https://www.archive.org/details/kjnp-1943-06-19

Source 2: https://www.archive.org/details/kjnp-1943-06-20

Dehumanization in Colonial Korea, 1943: Branding Koreans as 'just objects' for 'not understanding the blessings of Imperial Japan' and labeling them as 'hypocrites who are outwardly obedient, but inwardly rebellious in their hearts'

I'm posting here today to share a rather unsettling article from colonial Korea in 1943. It is timely, as this article was published almost exactly 80 years ago on June 19th, 1943. This piece details the activities of a Korean collaborator teacher named Mr. Ōhara. His actions during this dark period of history serve as a chilling reminder of the extent of Imperial Japanese indoctrination and control.

The article depicts Mr. Ōhara endeavoring to brainwash a group of young Korean girls at a textile factory, imposing upon them Imperial Japanese propaganda. The girls, some as young as 12 and 13 years old, were forced to speak only Japanese, identify as Japanese people, and pledge their loyalty to Imperial Japan.

Something peculiar and unsettling about this article is the warning it includes about "面従腹背" (menjū fukuhai), or hypocrisy. It's a term that portrays people as being outwardly obedient, but inwardly rebellious. The usage of this phrase betrays an intrinsic distrust towards the Korean people and their loyalties, a skepticism that ultimately proved justified with the jubilation expressed by most Koreans upon Imperial Japan's defeat in August 1945.

Furthermore, the article cruelly dehumanizes Koreans who resisted the Imperial Japanese identity, terming them "just objects". This chilling rhetoric reflects the cold colonial attitude - those Koreans who resisted were no longer viewed as humans but as objects.

This article also has curious allegations that the Koreans were actually Japanese in ancient times. 'Japanese-Korean Unification' propaganda often contained such attempts to paint ancient Koreans as Japanese. In later propaganda in 1944, this 'ancient Koreans = Japanese' propaganda would develop into calling Koreans the descendants of Susanoo, the younger brother of the Sun Goddess Amaterasu, the ancestor of the Japanese nation (see Governor-General Koiso's speech).

Mr. Ōhara, as portrayed in the article, is likely an ethnic Korean collaborator for Imperial Japan, with a narrative painting him as deeply influenced by his experiences at a teaching college in mainland Japan.

I must add a note about the ethics of posting such propaganda content. The intention behind sharing this distressing piece is not to sensationalize, but to bring to light a crucial part of history that is often buried or forgotten. It may be a controversial thing, but I believe that making such historical material accessible can help us grasp the scale of colonial injustices more clearly.

Regrettably, there is a dearth of English-language scholarship about the colonial period of Korean history, relative to the enormous wealth of primary source material that remains so poorly documented. As someone passionate about this topic, I aim to contribute to filling this knowledge gap, even if only a little, by posting these materials whenever I can. I believe this is crucial in providing a more nuanced understanding of Korea's past, as painful as it may be.

(Translation)

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) June 19, 1943

"Shame on hypocrites who are outwardly obedient, but inwardly rebellious in their hearts!"

Young workers were moved by Mr. Takeo Katō's speech and bursting with patriotism

"We are Imperial Citizens!"

[Busan telephone report] Now that there are 25 million people in the Korean peninsula needing to integrate and become distinguished Japanese people among a nation of 100 million, there is a passionate young man who, along with many workers, fuels the fiery spirit of loyalty and dedication to work. This man is Mr. Keiichi Ōhara (32), who works as a labor affairs officer at the Busan Forestry Industry Company, Busan Factory in Jeonpo-ri, Busan. Invited to come to Korea by the Korean Federation of National Power, the visiting speakers, including the writer Mr. Takeo Katō, have sparked Mr. Ōhara's patriotism into a raging torrent. Specifically, during the Busan speech, Mr. Katō advocated the unification of Japan and Korea as follows.

"Just 25 million Koreans cannot survive on their own. They must absolutely be with Japan. If Koreans show loyalty with such calculating feelings, that is not to be appreciated. Although the word Imperialization is being shouted these days, I don't think Imperialization is the right word. The Koreans were Imperial people from the very beginning, but they subsequently became separated from Japan. Through annexation, they returned to the old ways. The sincerity of our Korean brethren must be pure loyalty that springs forth naturally. There is no other way to prove this feeling than through our mutual blood."

Although his voice was low, Mr. Ōhara was strongly struck by how patiently and clearly Mr. Katō delivered his arguments with sincerity. Then, Mr. Ōhara jotted down his pent-up, boiling feelings in a letter and sent it to Mr. Katō, who was staying in Seoul. In his letter, Mr. Ōhara pledged his earnest oath to patriotism, lamented that a minority of the Korean people still have not become awake, expressed his joy for being born in Imperial Japan, and described the mental preparation that each person on the home front should bear in the decisive battle. Reading this, Mr. Katō said, "I am very happy to have found such a friend of passionate sympathies here. This is a great harvest from my coming to Korea," he said with satisfaction. Thus, a passionate bond was formed between Mr. Katō and Mr. Ōhara, which was superior to any teacher-student relationship. Now, let's take a look at Ōhara's life, which is "always on the battlefield":

When visiting the Busan factory of the forestry industry, you see that 140 to 150 working women (even though they are called working women, many are 12 or 13 years old) are working happily in front of their thread winding machines. These little female warriors are all daughters from poor families, and of course, they have not received schooling, but they speak excellent Japanese and live as Imperial people, attending one hour of lecture during lunch break everyday.

Original caption: Actual educational scene of Mr. Ōhara instructing the fighting girls at their workplace 

Leader Ōhara's warm thoughtfulness as a company executive has borne fruit today. After touring the factory, he said, "I used to be an elementary school teacher, but due to family circumstances and connections, I have been involved in this factory for two years". He continued to speak of his firm belief in the spirit of service at work as follows.

"These children (referring to the workers) are also among the 100 million of Imperial Japan. Those who cannot live life centered on the Japanese language will not possibly be able to understand the concept of the National Body. If you are a National Person and do not understand the blessings of Imperial Japan, then you are just an object. I was deeply moved by Mr. Katō's speech the other day. Although my power is weak, I want to improve the qualities of those children as Japanese people as much as possible. They are sincerely united in their one-hour lesson each day. The method of education starts with Volume 1 of the reader and generally progresses to Volume 4 in a year. Through activities such as various ceremonies, military songs, sending and receiving brave soldiers who are dispatched, I let them learn what kind of situation our nation is facing now. While I was studying at Seoul Teachers School, I learned the true, beautiful virtues of the people of mainland Japan from the communal life in the dormitory, but I cannot help but feel uncomfortable when I think that there are still many Korean compatriots who dare to have dark feelings of hypocrites who are outwardly obedient, but inwardly rebellious in their hearts, without coming into contact with these beautiful virtues. My words may be a little exaggerated, but if I can serve the Imperial Movement somewhat through my current field of work, I am happy to become a cornerstone and devote my life to this cause."

His speech becomes even hotter, and the enthusiastic spirit of the one who puts things into practice resonated strongly in his words. Eventually, the noon siren rang. The factory girls who came out from the work place offered silent prayers all at once. After a while, their lunch break ritual began. After Mr. Ōhara left for the education room, Mr. Yūhachi Katō, the factory manager, also said, "He is a very enthusiastic man. You can entrust him with everything. The workers' desire to learn the Japanese language is beyond our imagination, and there has been no turnover of female workers since this system was established. Their performance has increased so much that the company executives are telling us to follow the example of the Busan factory in Korea."

At that time, the factory's three teachings, "It is also a battlefield here!", "Follow Admiral Yamamoto's Example!", and "If this hand relaxes, then its fighting power will also relax!" could be heard overflowing from the windows full of spirit by the girls chanting and repeating them every day at the end of their lessons. Behold the brave appearance of these lovely, fighting girls! They are also becoming a force which will cooperate in the construction of Greater East Asia. [Photo = Actual educational scene of Mr. Ōhara instructing the fighting girls at their workplace (censored by Busan Fortress Command)]

(Transcription)

京城日報 1943年6月19日

恥じよ"面従腹背"

加藤武雄氏の講演に感動、迸る青年工員の愛国心

我等は皇民だ

【釜山電話】今こそ半島二千五百万が立派な日本人として一億の中に融け込まねばならぬと多数工員と共に烈々たる尽忠奉公の精神を燃えたたせ、職場に敢闘する熱血男子がある。それは釜山府田浦里森林産業会社、釜山工場に労務人事係として働く大原敬一君（三二）で、さきに国民総力朝鮮聯盟の招聘によって来鮮した作家、加藤武雄氏以下の講演行脚を機会に大原君の抱く愛国の熱情には遂に奔流となって堰を切った。即ち一行の釜山講演の際、加藤氏が説いた内鮮一体論。

「二千五百万だけじゃ生きてゆけない。矢張り日本と一緒でなければ駄目だ。こういった打算な気持ちで尽くす忠義なら有難くないが、また近頃皇民化が叫ばれている。皇民化ではない。もともと皇民であったのだが、途中一寸別れていただけで併合によって古に復ったのだ。朝鮮同胞の赤誠は自然に湧き出る純粋な忠魂でなければいかん。この気持ちはお互いの血液を以て証明するより外にない。」

声は低いが真情を吐露して諄々語る加藤氏の論旨に大原君は強く打たれた。そして間もなく同君は鬱勃として沸き立つ自分の気持ちを一文に綴り、滞城中の加藤氏へ送った。文面には我が身の生い立ちから皇国日本に生を享けた歓喜、半島人にして未だに目覚めぬ少数の一部があるのを歎じ、決戦下銃後の一人一人が負担すべき心構え等、切切と愛国の至誠を誓っており、これを読んだ加藤氏は、「僕はここにこんな一人の熾烈な共感共志の友を得たことはこの上なく嬉しい。こんどの来鮮での大いなる収穫である」とさも満足げに語った。かくして加藤氏と大原君との間には忽ち師弟の関係にも勝る熾烈なる心の契りが結ばれたのであるが、さて大原君の実践する"常在戦場"生活とは？

森林産業釜山工場を訪ねると、撚糸業を営む同工場には百四、五十名の工女さん（工女といっても十二、三歳の少女が多い）達が繰糸機の前で嬉々として働いていた。この小さな女戦士は皆貧しい家庭の子女で、学校教育など勿論受けて居ないが、一日一時間昼休みを利用しての講習で立派な国語を話し皇民の生活をなしている。

一人の指導者大原氏の熱を会社重役の温かい思いやりが期せずして今日の実を結んだのだ。工場を一巡した後、同君に聞けば、「僕はもと国民学校の教員でしたが、家庭の事情と縁あって二年前からここの工場に厄介になっています」と前置きして職域奉公の貫く堅き信念を語り続ける。

「あの子供（工員を指す）らも一億の一人です。国語生活が出来ない者に国体観念など解る筈がありません。国民にして若し皇国日本の有難さが解らないとすれば、それは単なる物体に等しい。僕は先日加藤先生の講演にいたく感動を覚えました。微力ではありますが、あの子供達にいくらかでも日本人としての資質を向上してやりたいと思っています。一日一時間の学課にみんなは心から一心になっています。教育の方法としては読本の巻一から始めて一年間に大体巻四まで進める。その他いろいろの儀式や軍歌、出征勇士の歓送迎等、実際を通じて国家が今どんな場面に直面しているかを話して聞かせます。僕は京城師範に在学中、寄宿舎の共同生活に於いて内地人の真実の美点を習得しましたが、多くの半島人の同胞の中にはまだまだこの美点に触れることなく敢えて"面従腹背"の暗い気持ちで居るのがありやしないか、思うだに不快です。言葉は少し大袈裟ですが、僕の現在の職域を通じて皇民運動に多少なりと尽くすことが出来たら喜んで礎石となり一命を捧げていいと決心しています。」

語気はいよいよ熱を帯び、実践する者の気魄が言葉の中に強く響く。やがて正午のサイレンが鳴った。職場から出て来た女工さん達が一斉にその場で黙祷を捧げる。暫くして彼女らのお昼の日課がはじまった。大原君が教養室へ去ったあとで工場長の加藤勇八氏も、「実に熱心な男です。あれなら全部任せていい。工員らの国語を習いたいという意欲はわれわれの想像以上で、この制度を設けてから女工の移動がありませんね。それだけ業績も挙って本社の重役も朝鮮の釜山工場を見倣えといっている位です」と述懐した。

そのとき教養室の窓からは女工さん達の唱和する工場三訓、「ここも戦場だ」、「山本元帥に続け」、「この手弛めば戦力弛む」が元気一ぱいな声で窓から溢れて来る。学課の終わりに毎日繰り返される職場の固き誓いである、可憐な少女達の闘う健気な姿。これも大東亜建設へ協力する戦力となるのだ【写真＝大原君と職場に働く少女戦士の教養実況（釜山要司検閲済み）】

Source: https://www.archive.org/details/kjnp-1943-06-19

Spotlight on 1943 Seoul: A Glimpse into the Russian Tatar Refugee Community, Marja Ibrahim's Poetry Tribute to Tatar National Poet Ğabdulla Tuqay on the 30-year anniversary of his death

 Following on from a previous post about the small community of Russian Tatars residing in Seoul in 1943, I'm glad to bring you fresh insights from two additional articles I've discovered from that era—two articles published in March and April 1943, respectively. These pieces provide further details on the lives and experiences of the Russian Tatars who were exiled from their homeland.

In the previous post, we delved into the interesting story of a 19-year-old Tatar woman named Martiya Ibrahim, who was extolled by the colonial regime for her selfless leadership within her diasporic community. Intriguingly, this April 1943 article introduces us to another figure, a 20-year-old Tatar woman named Marja Ibrahim. She is depicted reciting an epic poem in a poignant tribute to Ğabdulla Tuqay, a celebrated Tatar national poet. This leaves us with an intriguing question—could Martiya and Marja be the same person?

An additional facet of interest emerges from the March 1943 article, shedding light on how even in colonial Korea, foreign communities were not exempt from the far-reaching grip of the war. It reveals that war donation efforts were an expectation levied not only upon the local population, but also on the foreign diaspora residing there. This compelling detail draws us deeper into the complexities of life in 1943 Seoul, from a unique perspective rarely explored.

(Translation)

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) March 26, 1943
To the Wounded Warriors
Donations from Turkic Muslims

As the movements of Muslims within the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere through Burma and India, draw attention, playing an increasingly significant role behind the scenes of the battlefield, a Muslim group composed of Turkic Tatars residing in Seoul said, "We owe our peaceful day-to-day lives entirely to the greatness of Japan, and we must especially express our sincere gratitude for the efforts of the warriors wounded in the Greater East Asia War."

Under the advocacy of Mr. Yankuraj (70), the head imam of the Muslim group living at 106-3, Wakakusa-chō [present-day Cho-dong (초동)], Seoul, Mr. Muslin (50), a Turkic Tatar who runs a Western clothing store on Namdaemun Street in the Golden District, along with over ten others, brought 118 yen to the Honmachi police station on March 25th. Simultaneously, a children's group contributed 65 yen. They stated, "It's a small amount, but we are offering our savings as consolation money for Japan's brave wounded warriors," which deeply moved Police Chief Masaoka. [Photo = Turkic Tatar Muslim group donating consolation money to wounded warriors]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) April 11, 1943
Tatars are commemorating a Patriot Poet
Welfare visits in the city

To celebrate the 30th anniversary of the death of Mr. Ğabdulla Tuqay, revered as a national poet, the Turkic Tatar Cultural Association in Seoul plans to host a memorial service on his death anniversary. The service will take place at noon on the upcoming 15th at the Hasegawa Town Christian Youth Center. They will pay tribute to Mr. Tuqay, the patriot poet who passed away young, and remember his achievements.

On the day of the event, Miss Marja Ibrahim (20), who resides in Honmachi 3-chōme, will be performing a recitation of a long poem, along with charming children's poetry dramas, to commemorate the great deeds of the pioneers of Asian revival. [Photo = Miss Marja Ibrahim reciting poetry]

(Transcription)

1943年3月26日 京城日報
傷つける勇士へ
トルコ回教徒の献金

ビルマ、印度を通じて大東亜共栄圏内の回教徒の動向が注目され、戦果の蔭に大きな役割が果たされつつある時、京城在住のトルコタタール人から成る回教徒団体では『私共が朝夕平和な生活が送れるのも全く日本の偉大さのお蔭であり、殊に大東亜戦争に傷つかれた傷痍勇士の方々のお働きには真心から感謝の誠を捧げねばなりません』と京城若草町一〇六の三、回教徒団体長牧師ヤンクラジ氏（七〇）の主唱で黄金町南大門通りに洋服商を営むトルコタタール人ムスリン氏（五〇）他十余名で百十八円同じく児童女子側が六十五円を二十五日、本町署に持参。『僅かですが、平素の貯金を勇敢な日本の傷痍勇士の慰問金にお捧げ致します』と献金正岡署長を感激させた。【写真＝傷痍勇士慰問献金のトルコタタール回教徒団体】

1943年4月11日 京城日報
憂国の詩人を偲ぶ韃靼人
街の慰問袋

”民族の詩人”としてその偉大さを謳われるガブドラトカイ氏逝いて早くも三十周年在城のトルコタタール文化協会では若くして逝いた憂国の詩人ガブドラトカイ氏の功績を偲ぶため命日に当る来る十五日正午から長谷川町キリスト教青年会館で追悼会を催すが、当日は本町三丁目に住むマルジャ・イブラヒム嬢（二〇）が長編詩の朗読を行うほか可憐な児童の詩劇など上演して亜細亜復興の先人の偉業を偲ぶと言います【写真＝詩を朗読するマルジャ・イブラヒム嬢】

Source 1: https://www.archive.org/details/kjnp-1943-03-26

Source 2: https://www.archive.org/details/kjnp-1943-04-11

Severe 1940s wartime housing crisis in urban areas of Japan-colonized Korea: housing shortfalls worsening each year, exacerbated by rent control, 2-3 families sharing one house, young people unable to marry or start families due to housing shortage

This article from 1943 covers the severe wartime housing crisis in Korea which was particularly acute in urban areas and industrial hubs. The article blames the housing shortage on various factors, including rapid urban population growth, expansion of industries, increasing incomes, and rent control policies hindering investment in rental housing. From 1939-1941, while the number of new households increased annually by 57,627, there was a stark deficit in the number of new housing units, with only 18,000 units added each year, leading to a yearly shortfall of around 20,000 units. Major cities, including Seoul, Pyongyang, Busan, and Chongjin, experienced significant housing deficits. This led to many social problems, including young people unable to marry and start families. Due to overcrowding, workers sought respite outside the home, which is why movie theaters had an outsized importance in this era for workers seeking an escape from their miserable reality.

Just as many young people today in Mainland China lament their inability to purchase homes, which poses a barrier to marriage, Korean youths apparently faced similar predicaments eight decades ago, during the final years of Imperial Japanese colonial rule.

(Translation)

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo), September 29, 1943

Three households in one house

Laborers have no homes to rest in

The War Lifestyle Reader Series: Housing (Part 1)

The words "house for rent" were written in black letters on a white piece of paper pasted messily on a lattice door of a residential home. Who has not seen such signs before? But now it has become a dream of the distant past. You have found someone to marry, but you don't have a house. You have been transferred to another city, but you can't go there because you can't find a house. It is no exaggeration to say that you will always be able to find three or four advertisements in the daily newspaper saying "Seeking a house for rent" or "No questions asked about the rent". Even a casual greeting to an acquaintance in passing would turn into a whine of, "By the way, do you know where I can find a house?" Indeed, the housing crisis is a serious concern shared by citizens of all belligerent nations of the world. So what is the relationship between war and housing, and how is it being resolved?

Original caption: "House for Rent" - that too has now become a dream of the distant past.

WARTIME HOUSING PROBLEMS

To sum up, similar to the previously discussed matters of "clothing" and "food," the issue of health and hygiene is of equal importance in guaranteeing a basic standard of living for our fighting nation. In today's age, when productive capacity directly correlates with war fighting potential, the ongoing housing crisis affecting ordinary people and the productivity of laborers is just as critical as food security, not merely a social issue as it was perceived in the past. Moreover, if we look at postwar population strategies through the lens of national development via population growth, we can argue that the barriers to population increase, such as challenges related to marriage, separate living, dormitories, and room rental, represent a substantial national issue, if not a concern for our co-prosperity sphere. So, what are the measures taken during wartime to address housing? But before diving into that, it's important to understand: why did the war result in such a severe housing crisis?

TWO TYPES OF HOUSING DIFFICULTIES

In essence, we can categorize housing difficulties into two distinct types. The first involves an imbalance between supply and demand due to fluctuating prices, a phenomenon that was common during past recessionary periods. The second type is an outright shortage of housing relative to demand, a situation we typically see during wartime. However, does this imply that Korea's wartime population grew so swiftly that we couldn't build enough housing to accommodate everyone? Not exactly. The housing shortage was prominent not in rural areas, but primarily in cities, mines, factories, and other hubs. This circumstance arose from a combination of factors brought on by the war:

1. Rapid population growth in urban areas was spurred by the expansion of government offices, companies, and other enterprises.
2. The sudden rise of the military iron and steel industry led to an increase in production, which caused workers in these industries to quickly flock to these sites.
3. The increase in income of these industrial workers inevitably led to them seeking to establish their own homes, rather than continuing to share houses or rent rooms as they did before.
4. Conversely, the soaring cost of land, difficulty in obtaining construction materials such as steel, the lack of construction workers, and the cessation of land rent control led to a halt in investment in rental housing, culminating in a significant housing shortage.

WE NEED TO BUILD 88,000 HOUSING UNITS PER YEAR

Assessing the current situation on the Korean peninsula through a numerical lens, the average yearly increase of new households and net gain in housing units (accounting for both new constructions and demolitions) across all major Korean cities between 1939 and 1941 was 57,627 households and 17,999 housing units, respectively. Intriguingly, while the number of households has been increasing steadily year after year, the availability of housing units has been on the decline, which was particularly noticeable in 1940. It's easy to conjecture that this trend has likely become even more pronounced since then. Notably, the new households include cohabiting living arrangements, apartments, and dormitories, so not all of them would need new housing. However, based on the ratio of housing units to households, which was 63% according to the 1938 survey, the annual requirement for housing units can be calculated to be around 38,000. This number is considerably higher than the aforementioned 17,999 units provided, leading to an annual deficit of about 20,000 housing units. As of the end of 1941, the housing shortages across all of Korea, according to a survey conducted by the Governor-General's Office in the previous October, are as follows:

• Seoul: 41,333 housing unit deficit
• Pyongyang: 5,559 housing unit deficit
• Busan: 9,041 housing unit deficit
• Chongjin: 8,472 housing unit deficit

The total number of households in the 38 provinces and towns in all of Korea is over 106,000. Many of them have families but are forced to rent rooms, live in dormitories, or live separately from their families. The reality is that two or three households often have no choice but to share one house. According to a survey conducted by the Governor-General's Office, the following is a summary of the current situation.

City	Renting Rooms	Sharing Houses	Single-household Houses
Seoul	33%	17%	50%
Busan	20.8%	7.2%	72%
Pyongyang	31%	9%	60%
Hamhung	12.3%	11%	76.6%
Chongjin	9.3%	9.1%	81.6%

(Note: Figures are rounded down to the nearest 0.0%.)

In other words, in the above five cities, 68% of the respondents lived in a house occupied by a single household, 21% rented rooms, and 11% shared their homes with other households.

NO RESTING PLACES FOR LABORERS

Therefore, homes to which workers return after a bustling day at work or after arduous manual labor during wartime have ceased to be sanctuaries of rest and relaxation. Instead, people seek respite outside the home. Entertainment districts teem with activity throughout the day, and movie theaters are marked by lengthy queues from morning till night. This kind of scene, which seems so out of sync with the times, may indeed warrant condemnation. However, it's only fair to say that those living in lavish mansions and comfortable official residences, who have never faced a housing crisis in their lives, should not be the ones to pass judgment or criticize such individuals.

Source: https://www.archive.org/details/kjnp-1943-09-29

(Transcription)

京城日報　1943年9月29日

一戸に三世帯の割

労務者に憩いの家なし

戦争生活読本　住の巻（上）

しもたや風の格子戸に雑に貼られた白い紙に、黒く書かれた『貸家』の文字。嘗てそれを散見しなかった人があろうか。だが、今はもう、それは遠い過去の夢だ。結婚の相手は決まったがサテ家がない。転勤にはなったが家がなくて赴任出来ぬ。日々の新聞の広告欄に『求貸家』、『不問家賃』の三つ四つ見られぬことは絶対ないといって過言でない。偶々往来で出遭った知人との挨拶も『ところで何処か家はないでしょうか』との泣き言に変わって来る始末。まことに住宅難こそは、世界の凡ゆる交戦国国民にとって共通する深刻な悩みである。然らば戦争と住宅。それは如何なる関係にあり、如何なる風に解決されんとしつつあるのであろうか。

戦時下の住宅問題

それは結論的にいって前述の『衣』、『食』の問題同様、戦う国民の保健衛生上、最低限度の生活確保という点で同じ比重を持つ重要問題である。特に生産力の増強が、直接戦力の増強である今日、労務者で庶民階級の住宅難が及ぼす生産力への影響は、食糧問題に決して劣らぬ重大問題であり、嘗ての如き単なる社会問題では絶対にないのである。さらに戦後の人口対策、民族発展のための人口増殖という点より考察する場合、即ち具体的にいって住宅難のための結婚難、別居生活、下宿、間借り生活等が、人口増殖への障害は国家的、いや共栄圏的重大問題であるともいえるであろう。では、戦時下の住宅対策は、ということになるが、その前に戦争は何故に斯くも深刻な住宅難を招来したのであろうか。

住宅難の二つの型

住宅難については原則として二つの型がある。一つは価格の点による需給の不円滑であり、これは嘗ての不景気時代の現象であった。そしてもう一つは需要に対する供給量の絶対不足である。後者が戦時下の現下に於ける現象であることはいうまでもない。しかし、それでは、戦時下の国内人口がそれだけに急激に増加し、それに対する住宅の建築が伴わないであろうか。といえばそうではない。何故ならば住宅難は農村ではこれを見ることなく独り都会地或いは鉱山、工場等の事業地にのみ限られた問題だからである。即ち戦争の結果：

１．官公署、会社その他の事務が膨張し人口の都市集中が急激に増加した。

２．生産増強のための軍需鉄工業が頓に勃興し、これらの従業員がこれら事業地に急激に集中したこと。

３．これら事業関係の労務者の収入増は、必然的に従来の如き同居、間借り生活から独立して一戸を構えるに至ったこと。

４．一方に於いて地価の昂騰、建鉄資材の入手難、建築労務者の不足及び地代家賃統制のストップ令等により貸家への投資中止即ち建築の手控えが行われたこと等により住宅の絶対不足となったものである。

年八万八千戸の要

茲で少しく半島の現状につき数字的に見れば、昭和十四年より十六年迄の三ヶ年に於ける全鮮主要都市の世帯増加数と新築及び滅失取り壊しによる実際供給戸数の平均は、世帯増加の年間平均五万七千六百二十七に対し供給戸数の平均は一万七千九百九十九となっており、特に世帯増加は年々増加しているのに反し、供給戸数は十五年を中心に減少しているのである。そして斯かる現象はその後の情勢からさらに著しくなっているだろうことは推察に難くない。尤も増加世帯のうちには同居、アパート住まい、下宿生活等もあるので、その全部が住宅を必要とするわけではないが、昭和十三年末調査による世帯数に対する住宅戸数の割合六分三厘の比率を以て、所要供給戸数を算出してみても年間三万八千戸の必要となり、前述の供給戸数一万七千九百九十九戸では差引き約二万戸ずつが年々不足している勘定となるのである。また総督府昨年十月調査の十六年末現在全鮮住宅不足数を見ると、

• 京城：41,333戸
• 平壌：5,559戸
• 釜山：9,041戸
• 清津：8,472戸

となって居り、全鮮三十八府邑の合計では実に十万六千余戸というその多数が、家庭は持ちながらも已むなく間借り、下宿、或いは家族との別居を余儀なくされているのである。即ち一軒の家に二世帯も三世帯も同居せねばならぬということになっているのが現状で、これも総督府の調査では次の如くになっている。

• 京城：　間貸：33%　同居：17%　同居なし：50%
• 釜山： 間貸：20.8%　同居：7.2%　同居なし：72%
• 平壌：　間貸：31%　同居：9%　同居なし：60%
• 咸興：　間貸：12.3%　同居：11%　同居なし：76.6%
• 清津：　間貸：9.3%　同居：9.1%　同居なし：81.6%

(註＝0.0%位以下切り捨て)

即ち以上の五府についてみても一戸一世帯居住は68%で、21%は間貸、11%は同居となって居るのである。

労務者安息所なし

かくては、戦時下の繁忙な執務を終えて、或いは劇しい労働に疲れて帰る憩いの家は、決して休息と静養のための生活の温床とはならず、人々は屋外ヘ憩いを求め繁華街は、わけもなく終日雑沓し、映画館は朝から長蛇の列に囲繞される結果となるのである。あまりにも非時局的な此の種の街の風景は、当然非難されるべきではあるが、しかしそれは到底、豪壮な邸宅や悠然たる官舎に住宅難を経験せぬ人々からの無反省な批判、非難は当を得ないものであるといっても差支えないのではなかろうか。

A look into the foreign films showing in Korean movie theaters in April/May 1943: L'antenato (1936), Capriccio (1938), Ein Lied für dich (1933), Fahrendes Volk (1938), Le Bal (1931), Heimat (1938), Un soir de rafle (1931)

This post will be a continuation of my exploration into the kinds of foreign movies that Seoul residents might have watched in 1943, when Imperial Japan was in the middle of a desperate war. To mark exactly 80 years since April and May 1943, I scanned the Keijo Nippo newspapers for any movie ads for foreign films that were showing at movie theaters in Seoul for those months. I identified the movies based on the Japanese titles as well as clues left in the ads themselves, such as the plot lines and the names of the directors and actors. As you can see, there were three German films, one French film, and one Italian film showing in April 1943, and just one German film and one French film showing in May 1943.

Foreign movies shown in April 1943:

• L'antenato (Italy, 1936)
• Capriccio (Germany, 1938)
• Ein Lied für dich (Germany, 1933)
• Fahrendes Volk (Germany, 1938)
• Le Bal (France, 1931)

Foreign movies shown in May 1943:

• Heimat (Germany, 1938)
• Un soir de rafle (France, 1931)

Let's take a look at the foreign movies which were screened in April 1943:

L'antenato (The Ancestor) was a 1936 Italian comedy starring Antonio Gandusio and Paola Barbara, who are depicted in these movie ads. This movie was showing at least on April 5th and perhaps other days in April. The following ads are from the April 3, April 4, and April 11 editions of Keijo Nippo.

Capriccio was a 1938 German historical comedy starring Lilian Harvey, who is featured in this movie ad which was published on April 17. The movie was showing for three days from April 17 to April 19. The full movie with English subtitles is available on Youtube here.

Ein Lied für dich (A Song for You) was a 1933 German romantic musical starring Jenny Jugo, who is featured in this movie ad published on April 17. This movie was showing for three days from April 17 to April 19.

Fahrendes Volk (People Who Travel) was a 1938 German drama film starring Françoise Rosay, who is featured in this movie ad published on April 30. This movie was showing for three days from April 30 to May 2. The full movie is available on Youtube here.

Le Bal (The Ball) was a 1931 French comedy drama film starring Danielle Darrieux, who is featured in this movie ad published on April 30. This movie was showing for three days from April 30 to May 2. 

Let's now take a look at the two foreign movies which were screened in May 1943:

Heimat (Homeland) was a 1938 German historical drama starring Zarah Leander, who is featured in this movie ad published on May 13. This movie opened on May 13th. The full movie is available on the Internet Archive here. Incidentally, this movie was also shown in March 1943.

Un soir de rafle (Dragnet Night) was a 1931 French romantic drama starring Annabella, who is featured in this movie ad published on May 13. It was screened for three days from May 13 to May 15. The full movie is available on Internet Archive here.

Source 1: https://www.archive.org/details/kjnp-1943-04-03
Source 2: https://www.archive.org/details/kjnp-1943-04-04
Source 3: https://www.archive.org/details/kjnp-1943-04-11
Source 4: https://www.archive.org/details/kjnp-1943-04-17
Source 5: https://www.archive.org/details/kjnp-1943-04-30
Source 6: https://www.archive.org/details/kjnp-1943-05-13

The Korean people were allegedly liars, slackers, quitters, and thieves, but Governor-General Koiso offered them a chance to redeem themselves and become honorable by submitting to Amaterasu and the Emperor, and awaken as true Japanese people to fulfill divine destiny in final part of 1944 speech

This is the third and final part of Governor-General Koiso's February 1944 intensely religious address to the entire Korean nation, which was prominently displayed on the front page of Keijo Nippo, the most widely distributed and read newspaper in all of Korea at the time. In the first part of the address, he described all Koreans as descendants of the Shinto god Susanoo-no-mikoto, the younger brother of Amaterasu, the Sun Goddess, but as he wrapped up his address in this final part, Koiso insulted the Korean people by calling them liars, slackers, quitters, and thieves, placing blame on the legacy of the corrupt Yi Dynasty. He then offered the Korean people a chance to redeem themselves and become honorable people by submitting themselves to the goddess Amaterasu and her descendant, the Japanese Emperor. In other words, he appealed to the Korean people to awaken as true Japanese people to fulfill divinely ordained destiny, so that they could "recognize their own true essence". It was a rather strange and dubious way to appeal to all Koreans to rally behind Imperial Japan in the middle of a desperate war against the U.S. and Britain.

You may notice how Koiso singled out Marxist philosophy for criticism, then claimed that Shinto philosophy also discusses the dichotomy between the material and the spiritual through the divine edict of the mirror (spiritual things) and the ears of rice (material things). This way of drawing parallels between foreign philosophies and Shinto philosophy is nothing new. It is very much in line with the rhetorical devices of Kokugaku, which was a Japanese nativist academic movement which sought to rid Japan of foreign ideas and influences and return Japan to the supposed purity of its ancient roots, of which Master Imaizumi's ideas arguably had the strongest influence on Koiso. Such parallels would be noted to then emphasize the differences and argue for the superiority of Shinto thought over foreign thought. Koiso's explicit mention of Marxism in this address may have been an implicit acknowledgement of the appeal that Marxism had for large sections of Korean society.

What is also strange about this address are the phrases in Mandarin Chinese and Russian that Koiso used to stereotype them as apathetic peoples. February 1944 was only about a year and a half away from the end of the war in August 1945, with Imperial Japanese forces suffering defeat after defeat, so perhaps Koiso's worries about Soviet Russia, China, United States, and Britain were reflected in the countries and peoples that he mentioned. 

Koiso displayed a photo of himself along with a rough draft of his speech in the February 16, 1944 issue of Keijo Nippo, but the photographed rough draft actually comes from this part of the speech, in which he mentions Marxism and its alleged shortcomings compared to Shintoism.

This article is full of references to lots of religious terminology from the Shinto religion, so I've added plenty of links to Wikipedia pages and other resources for further reading.

(Translation)

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) February 19, 1944

Thorough adherence to the true meaning of the National Body brings inevitable victory!

(Transcript of Governor-General Koiso's Speech) [3]

Correct the self that appears in your mirror!

An Imperial Edict of Profound Significance

Earlier, I mentioned that, in addition to the divine edict concerning himorogi (divine trees) and iwasaka (rock cairns), there are two divine edicts concerning the mirror and the ears of rice. One divine edict says, "Amaterasu, holding a treasured mirror in her hand, gave it to Ame-no-oshihomimi and looked at him saying, 'My child, look into this treasured mirror as if you were looking at me. We shall share the same bed and the same room, so that it may serve as a mirror of worship'". The other divine edict says, "I shall take the ears of rice that I grew in the heavens in the fields of Yuniwa, and bestow them upon my children".

Those were the divine decrees about the mirror and the ears of rice. The first decree basically says, "I will give you this mirror. Think of this mirror as me, Amaterasu, and keep it with you in the same bed and in the same room". In other words, the divine edict tells you to always be with Amaterasu and worship her whether you are asleep or awake.

Since we are with the Goddess, everything we say, do, and think must be done in the presence of the Goddess. This is the expression of the godlike spirit which is embodied as a clear mirror, which is in contrast to the ears of rice, which represent material things.

In particular, the fact that the mirror was given to him to represent the Goddess is of profound significance. Please excuse me for explaining this to you as if I were speaking to elementary school children, but please stand in front of the mirror. Everything from your mind to your complexion will be reflected in the mirror. If you are worried about yourself, you will see your worries reflected in the mirror. If your button is undone, it will be reflected in the mirror as it should be.

However, the mirror will not say, "Hey you, Koiso! What's with your clothes? Isn't your button undone?" Rather, the reflection of Koiso in the mirror does some self-reflection on his own, and realizes that the button is something that needs to be fastened, so he fastens his button. The mirror does not say anything.

However, when we face the mirror, we reflect upon ourselves and correct what needs to be corrected. How truly profound it is that the mirror was given to us in the place of the Goddess in such a way! As I have just said, the mirror does not say anything. In other words, the mirror never makes excuses.

Recently, the wartime atmosphere of the world has become heavier, and the old system must not be allowed to prevail. Individualism, liberalism, and the capitalist economy are not acceptable. We are told that we must embrace totalitarianism, thought control, and a planned economy, but the gods do not take sides with any of these.

Everything is encompassed by the mirror, whether it be the free economy, controlled economy, individualism, or totalitarianism. Good or bad, right or wrong, beautiful or ugly, straight or curved, everything is encompassed. As I mentioned earlier with the example of Koiso reflected in the mirror, the mirror makes you reflect upon yourselves and discard the bad parts of yourselves in accordance with the times and the current environment. Eventually, only the good parts of yourselves will remain. It is the mirror and the Goddess who will guide you in this way. This is precisely what Susanoo-no-Mikoto and Amaterasu intended.

We do not spend our days only with trivial criticisms. When we see society from the viewpoint of encompassing everything, cutting off the bad parts, and keeping the good parts, it can be said that the structure of society today has many good parts, but there are also many parts in our ways of thinking that must be corrected. The other day, I talked about this with a student who came to see me regarding the issue of volunteer enlistment, and I must say that young students are very innocent.

I didn't consider myself the ideal vessel to embody the mirror, but as I accepted the mirror into myself and spoke with sincerity, as if I myself had turned into a god or the mirror, the students listened attentively and were convinced. I believe that this lesson from the mirror is truly a great lesson.

The next divine edict, which follows this great lesson of spiritual culture, reads "I shall take the ears of rice that I grew in the heavens in the fields of Yuniwa, and bestow them upon my children". It is a divine edict that reveals the importance of the material substance, that the spiritual side alone is not enough. This is a divine edict which mandates that we must give eternal life to the magnificent divine spirit with the help of this material substance, the ears of rice from the fields of Yuniwa. That is, with the help of the substance of purity and innocence.

Marxism is based on a materialistic historical view of all things material, and while it is not absolute spiritual speculation, it is merely a derivative spiritual theory that starts from a materialistic view. And even though Marxism is a product of modern times, the principle of the mirror and the ears of rice was already established tens of thousands of years ago in the reigns of Amaterasu and Susanoo-no-Mikoto, and has been teaching and guiding our ancestors in every generation.

The last of the divine edicts is the divine edict of the immortality of the heavens and the earth. This is the conclusion that the destiny of the emperor and the heavens and the earth will be unlimited only when we stand on the ground of the oneness of the sovereign, the people, and the nation in accordance with the aforementioned divine edict concerning himorogi (divine trees) and iwasaka (rock cairns), pushing forward based on this spirit in accordance with the divine edict of the mirror and the ears of rice and adding thereon a splendid material substance. This divine edict is written at the beginning of the reading textbooks of the elementary schools. Therefore, there is no need to elaborate much further about this divine edict. Indeed, we Japanese and Koreans have been nurtured in such a spiritual atmosphere since ancient times.

However, history and tradition also have great power. There are many people here who are from the Korean peninsula, but Koreans, whether they are in mainland Japan, Manchuria, or Northern China, are not good people. They are quick to tell lies, lack a sense of responsibility, lack endurance, and are not ashamed of taking things that belong to others.

However, as to what has brought about such a situation, I believe that it is mainly due to the political system of the Yi Dynasty over the past 500 years. From the end of the Goryeo Dynasty, the 500 years of politics of the Yi Dynasty probably contributed to the deterioration of the pure and honorable state of the people.

The reason why a nation known for its noble Hwarang Corps of Silla, who were not inferior to the chivalrous people of Europe or the Bushidō warrior class of mainland Japan, began to tell lies and steal is because the general public was oppressed and exploited by the special class during the 500-year rule of the Yi Dynasty. Consequently, the public was forced to struggle to live one day at a time, finding any way to make ends meet, and even lies became a means to an end.

In China, there is a similar philosophy, which is eloquently illustrated by the phrase, "Méi fǎzi (没法子) [cannot help it]". The Slavic Russians use the term "nichevo (ничего) [nothing]" which also expresses the same tendency. If there are any defects in the Korean people that should be criticized, I am convinced that they are the result of the politics of the Yi Dynasty over the past 500 years, and that the true essence of the Korean people is honorable, rather than what I just described.

Since the beginning of the Meiji era, people in mainland Japan have been worshiping the West, forgetting the true essence of the fine Japanese people, thinking that anything Western is good, that good products are imported, and that Japanese products are synonymous with inferior goods. University professors were also oblivious to the true essence of Japan and lectured solely based on the thoughts of Westerners written in horizontal text. When students saw that their professors were well versed in Western studies, they would gladly attend their lectures in adoration and admiration. Over the past 60 to 70 years, there have been quite a number of Westerners even in mainland Japan who have disguised themselves as Japanese people.

In their colonial policies, the United States and Britain have exploited the colonized masses for their own enjoyment. Some Western-minded Japanese have thought of our governance of Korea as a similar to those colonial policies of the United States and Britain.

However, as I have said before, Japanese-Korean unification is the reductive coalescence of the same ethnic peoples who must necessarily and inevitably become one body, different in kind from the colonies of the United States and Britain.

Viewing things in this way, the Japanese people who have licked the dregs of Western thought will also be enlightened, and both the Japanese and the Koreans must surely recognize their own true essence, so that Japan as a whole can truly become pure and uncluttered, a nation of one hundred million people united with one mind. [The insert photo shows a small mirror excavated in Nangnang-gun].

Source: https://www.archive.org/details/kjnp-1944-02-19

(Transcription)

京城日報　1944年2月19日

国体本義に徹せる必勝不敗

小磯総督　講話速記　【三】

鏡に映る我を是正

意義深遠なる神勅

先程、神籬磐境の神勅の外に、もう二つの神勅があると申しましたが、第二番の神勅は鏡と稲穂の神勅であります。これを簡単に申しますれば、『天照大神、手に宝鏡を持ちたまいて天忍穂耳尊に授けて視きて曰く、吾が児、此の宝鏡を視まさむこと、当に吾を視るが如くすべし。與に床を同じくし、殿を共にして以て斎鏡と為すべし』又勅して曰く、『高天原に御す斎庭の穂を以て亦吾が児に御せまつるべし』

これが鏡と稲穂の神勅であります。其の初めの方は、お前にここにある鏡をやる。これを私即ち天照大神と思って之と同床共殿、即ち寝ても醒めても一緒におれ、詰まり天照大神と常に一緒におって大神を斎い奉れということであります。

神様と一緒におるのですから、総て言うこと、為すこと、考えること悉く神の境地に於いてなされねばならないということです。それは軈て明鏡、神の如き精神ということを言い現わされたものであり、後の穂即ち物質と対照しての精神であります。

殊に神の代わりとして鏡をお渡しになったという所に非常に深遠な意義があると拝察致します。皆さんに対し国民学校の子供に話をするようなことを申しましては済みませんが、鏡の前に立って御覧なさい。こっちの心から顔色まで総てあけすけに鏡に映って行きます。若し自分に心配でもあると心配そうな色がありありと鏡に映って行きます。はめておくべき釦が外れておりますと、その通り鏡に映ります。

而も鏡は『小磯、きさま、その服装は何だ。釦が外れておるではないか』とは言いません。言いませんが、鏡に映った小磯自らは、この釦というものは、はめて置くべきものであると、自分で反省をして釦をはめます。鏡は何とも言いません。

けれども鏡に向った我々は自ら反省して直すべき所を直して行きます。そういうような風に神の代わりに鏡をお授けになったことは、何と真に深遠ではありますまいか。鏡は今申しました通り何とも言いませぬ。即ち決して言い訳け致しませぬ。

近頃、世の中は戦時風景が濃厚になって来たものですから、旧体制であってはならない。個人主義、自由主義、資本主義経済であってはならぬ。宜しく全体主義、統制思想、計画経済でなければならないとやかましく言われておりますが、神は少しも好き嫌いは致しませぬ。

自由経済でも統制経済でも個人主義でも全体主義でも何でも総て之を包容します。善悪正邪、美醜曲直、一切を挙げて包容し、包容した挙句がどうなるかと申しますと、先刻小磯が鏡に映った時のことを申しました通り、包容せられたものをして自ら反省して悪い所を切り捨てて行かせます。時に応じ環境に処し、いい所だけが残って行きます。そういうように導くのが鏡であり、神であります。素戔嗚尊並びに天照大神の思召しというものは正にここにあるのです。

詰まらない批判などばかりに日を暮らすということはやらない。一切を包容して悪い所を切り落とさせ、いい所をとって行くというような点から見ると、現在の社会組織なども大分改めていい所もあり、お互いに考えておる根性の中でも大分是正して行かねばならぬ部分が沢山あると考えられるのであります。先日、学徒志願の問題に関連し来訪した学徒にも此の話を致しましたが、矢張り若き学徒は純真であります。

私は元より鏡の器ではないのですが、受け売りながら誠心をこめ、神様か鏡になったような気持ちで話しましたが、純真なる学生は能く傾聴もして呉れ又能く納得もしてくれました。この鏡の訓えというものは、実に偉大な訓えだと思うのであります。

この偉大なる精神文化の教訓である勅の次に来る『高天原に御す斎庭の穂を以て、亦吾が児に御せまつるべし』という勅は物質の重要性を御示しになったのでありまして、精神だけではまだ十分ではない。この物質、斎庭の穂即ち清浄無垢なる物質を以て立派な神の如き精神に悠久なる生命を与えて行かねばならぬという勅であります。

マルキシズムは物質万能唯物史観に立脚し、精神思索元より絶無とは申しませぬが、物質論から出発した派生的精神論に過ぎませぬ。而かもマルキシズムの如きは近代の所産なるに拘わらず、斎鏡斎庭の原理は無慮数万年前天照大神、素戔嗚尊の御世に、既に創造確立せられ、世々我々の祖先を教え導かれていたのであります。

最後は天壌無窮の神勅でありますが、先に申しました神籬磐境の神勅に依って君民君国不二一体の境地に立脚し、斎鏡斎穂の神勅に依り精神を基調とし、これに立派な物質を加えて邁進する時に初めて天壌と倶に皇運は無窮であるという結論が、天壌無窮の神勅でありまして国民学校等の読本の冒頭にも書いてありますから、本神勅に就いては多く申し上ぐる必要はありますまい。兎も角も我々内鮮人は古くから此様な精神的雰囲気の間に育成されて来た筈なのであります。

ところが歴史と伝統というものも却々偉大な力があります。ここには半島出身の方も多く居られますが、内地といわず、満州といわず、華北といわず、どうも朝鮮人という者は困る。直ぐ嘘をつく、責任感がない、持久力がない、動もすれば他人の物を取って恥じないということを申します。

併し素戔嗚尊から今迄三大神勅を奉じて来た筈の存在が、そういうことになっているというのは何が左様にしたかというと、私の信ずるところでは主として、李朝五百年の政治から然らしめたのであると思います。高麗の末期から李朝五百年の政治に依って純真な立派な存在が悪化したのでしょう。

新羅時代に於いては花郎道という欧羅巴に於ける騎士道、内地に於ける武士道に優っても譲らないという高潔剛健にして立派な存在が、なぜ嘘を言ったり、掻払いをやるようになったかというと、李朝五百年の統治に於いて一般大衆は特殊階級から圧迫、搾取の対象とされたがため、大衆は唯唯今日唯今を、一時を糊塗する為に努力せざるを得なくなり、嘘も方便ということになって来たのであります。

支那にも同じような思想があって、『没法子』という言葉が之を雄弁に物語って居ります。スラブロシア人が『ニチェオウ』という言葉を遣いますが、これも同じ傾向を表現して居ります。此の如く朝鮮同胞に若し批議すべき欠陥ありとせば、これは畢竟李朝五百年の政治が生んだものでありまして、本質は決して左様でなく立派なものであると確信するのであります。

内地人はどうかといえば、明治初年からなんでも西洋崇拝で本当の立派な日本人の本質を忘れ、西洋というとなんでも良いと思い、良い品物を舶来品、和製とは下等品の代名詞であるという風に考えられ、大学の諸先生も日本の本質を閑却して専ら西洋人の書いた横文字思想を基として教授し、之を習う学生も、あの先生は西洋学に通じていると見れば、喜んで之に憧憬し感服して聴講するという風に、この六、七十年間を経過して来たため、時とすれば日本人の皮を被っている西洋人が内地にも少なからず見られたものです。

又米国、英国が植民地政策をやる時にどういう主義を取ったかというと、彼等自らの享楽の為に植民地の一般大衆を搾取の対象としたのでありますが、西洋かぶれの日本人中朝鮮統治の方針を米英の植民地政策流に考えた向もあったでしょう。

然るに内鮮合体は前に申し述べた通り同一民族の還元合体てありまして、英米辺の植民地と其選を異にして、必然凛然一体になって行かなければならぬのであります。

斯く観じ来れば西洋思想の糟粕を甞めて来た内地人も亦翻然と悟りを拓き、此くして内地人も朝鮮人もともに自己の本質を確実に認識せねばならず、これに依って日本全体が真に純一無雑、一億一心ということを完成し得るのであります。【カットの写真は楽浪出土小鏡】