Imperial Japan’s railway system in Korea was falling apart by early August 1945 with severe overcrowding, parts and labor shortages, exhausted staff causing more accidents, train conductors gone rogue …

This article offers a fascinating glimpse into the decrepit state of the streetcar system in Seoul at the beginning of August 1945, a mere two weeks or so before the end of World War II and the liberation of Korea from Imperial Japanese colonial rule.

Original caption: Executive Maehara guiding workers on-site

Three years of war apparently took a terrible toll on the city's streetcar infrastructure, with shortages of everything from labor to materials, and repair backlogs increasing. Even in the best of times, the streetcar system was already struggling with crowding, as shown in these newspaper photos from November 28, 1939:

Fewer operational streetcars meant even more overcrowding, which was exacerbated by passengers who brought oversized luggage on board, often stuffed with scarce food supplies brought in from the countryside. Fewer staff also meant overworked staff who were exhausted and more prone to mistakes, which led to more accidents. Similar scenes were likely playing out elsewhere in Imperial Japan in both the wartime and immediate postwar periods.

The colonial reporter interviewed two people for this piece: one was President Hozumi of Seoul Electric Railway, and the other was Chief Conductor Maehara whom the reporter accompanied on a field trip to at least three of the train stations along a short stretch of what is now Line 2 of Seoul Metro: Kōgane Station (present-day Euljiro-1-ga), Eiraku Station (present-day Euljiro-3-ga), and Kōgane 4-Chōme Station (present-day Euljiro-4-ga). Maehara and the reporter witnessed the serious overcrowding and dysfunctional train operations first hand, such as train clumping and 'tandem trains' (a larger car pulling a smaller one). The interviewees were surprisingly frank and open about the ongoing problems, acknowledging room for improvement. As a propaganda news feature, colonial authorities may have published these interviews to address mounting public anger over worsening train services.

Maehara directed special criticism at rogue train conductors who were responsible for the phenomenon of trains pretending to be broken ('moving broken cars'), trains speeding away even though there is still space for more passengers ('jump trains'), trains that ignore waiting passengers at stops ('slipping trains'), and trains running without clear destinations ('black trains'), which he attributed to lack of adequate crew education. Perhaps some of these 'black trains' were commandeered by anti-regime elements, like Korean nationalists and revolutionaries.

This article uses one Korean word, "回車 (회차)", which means "a train reversing direction at the end of its route and heading back in the opposite direction". The corresponding Japanese word would be 折り返し列車. In fact, the word 回車 does not appear in any online Japanese dictionary, not even in the Weblio dictionary which usually includes words used during this period. Did the variety of Japanese spoken in Korea at the time include this word as a special loanword, or did a Korean writer accidentally or intentionally slip it into this article? In the two years of reading Keijo Nippo, this is arguably the first word I have ever encountered in the pages of the newspaper where I had to consult a Korean dictionary to confirm its definition.

I marked and labeled the train stations mentioned in this article along with some additional landmarks in the following illustrated 1929 map, which can be found at this history website. This map is a panoramic view of Seoul (then called Keijō in Japanese) as viewed in the northeast direction.

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) August 3, 1945

Trains, Run Smoothly! 

President Hozumi Discusses Alleviating Congestion 

Struggling with Repairs

Just when you think a train has finally arrived, you are caught in a crush of people, a scene of chaos and agony—it is truly a transportation hell. The issue of transportation is a source of distress for the people of Seoul. Is there any measure that can alleviate the congestion? This question, along with another concern, was brought to the headquarters of the Seoul Electric Railway Company, leading to a conversation with President Hozumi about running the trains.

The Wish to Eliminate Faulty Cars

Q: What is the fundamental cause of the transportation congestion?
A: In the past, we prided ourselves on operating 95% of all vehicles. Now, however, we cannot keep up with repairs. We lack enough cars, and we cannot procure motors. We are forcing trains to run in tandem (a larger car pulling a smaller one), but this strain is causing even more breakdowns. The rate of absenteeism among crew members is also increasing.

Q: While the material shortages are understandable, could not congestion be alleviated somewhat by having technical school students help out with repairs and by reinforcing labor management?
A: Well, is that something only the electric company can do? Recently, due to the rain, the number of faulty cars has increased. Of course, repairs are essential, and we must also consider the job security of the crew members. Support from relevant government agencies for food supplies and materials is necessary, and raising public awareness of transportation etiquette is also part of the solution.

Q: What about reducing unnecessary passengers?
A: Recently, there has been a noticeable increase in people going out to buy food. They bring large loads, which contributes to the congestion. But then, what qualifies as a truly necessary passenger? People going out to buy food are doing so to survive, so you cannot exactly say their trips are unnecessary. We need to be more thoughtful about car assignments.

Q: It seems accidents have been on the rise as well.
A: In general, people are paying less attention. This applies to the crew as well. I am deeply concerned about this. But when I look at the current situation, it seems like a competition between inconsiderate people. Seoul Electric runs the trains, but there are other institutions responsible for public transportation training and etiquette. I think it is necessary to retrain the drivers.

Q: Does Seoul Electric have any decisive measures to alleviate congestion?
A: Listen, when there is little food, people fight. The same applies to transportation—if we had enough cars, there would be no problem. For that, we need to gather more hands for repairs. If we can do that, restoring the system to its former state is not impossible.

Dull Train Operations

Chief Conductor Maehara brainstorms solutions

In terms of life in the city center, both moral integrity and clarity are swayed when the charm of smooth train operations is significantly disturbed. We accompanied a senior official from the Seoul Electric Railway Company as he took command on the front lines, observing the real situation on the ground.

"Don't push, you will get crushed! What are you saying? Don't dawdle!"

At the peak of rush hour, around 5 PM, near the entrance of Kōgane Station (present-day Euljiro-1-ga), a middle-aged, distinguished conductor was hard at work directing passengers, urging, "Please move in an orderly manner, there is still room, so please move inside." This dedicated conductor is none other than Mr. Maehara, a senior executive of Seoul Electric. At the request of the reporter, he kindly agreed to discuss the congestion issue on the spot.

"How can we squeeze in like this? People are not cargo!" a loud voice of anger came from the crowd, and Maehara, with a wry smile, slightly lowered his head.

Reporter: "Do you often ride the trains yourself?"
Maehara: "Of course, I am on the trains practically every third day."

After some light banter, the reporter and Maehara continued their conversation on the crowded train.

Reporter: "Is there no way to alleviate this congestion? Recently, I heard about a passenger who broke two ribs and had to be hospitalized."
Maehara: "It is embarrassing for the company that we are unable to adequately serve the needs of wartime transportation. Above all, we simply do not have enough trains. Compared to the end of last year, we have reduced the number of cars by an additional 30%. On top of that, 25% of the cars that leave the depot each day return due to breakdowns."

Reporter: "Is there no way to strengthen your repair capabilities?"
Maehara: "We lack enough workers."

Reporter: "You cannot just leave it at that, can you?"
Maehara: "Of course, the trains are just as important as weapons, and we are striving to train and recruit workers. We are waiting for the implementation of new regulations that will stabilize the conditions for our employees, but I regret that the authorities are slow in taking action."

Reporter: "Given the extreme reduction in the number of trains, isn't it vital for the company to implement bold new ideas for introducing new train management technologies?"
Maehara: "We are considering it, but it is difficult."

At Eiraku Station (present-day Euljiro-3-ga), many passengers got off, and a good number of waiting passengers were able to board. Maehara was closely examining intersection technologies.

Reporter: "For example, cars converge on this line from both the Namdaemun and Seodaemun platforms, so if people walk to this point, it should be easier to board. If the two platforms at the Kōgane Station entrance were consolidated on the Kōgane line side, the train utilization rate would increase significantly, don’t you think?"
Maehara: "We would not know for sure without precise calculations. It is a complex problem involving advanced mathematical 'combinations.' Moreover, the stop-and-go signals are controlled by entirely separate entities, which complicates matters."

Reporter: "Have you tried calculating it precisely?"
Maehara: "We have not. But breaking the usual norms of train operations may indeed be essential."

We disembarked at Kōgane 4-Chōme Station (present-day Euljiro-4-ga). There we saw a line of ten "tandem trains" (a larger car pulling a smaller one). Maehara, embarrassed, remarked, "Well, here comes another tandem." When we asked the cause at the front of the line, we learned it was a motor failure.

Maehara: "It is generally the same things: motor failures, brake issues, ball bearings, or circuit breakers causing what we call 'clumped operations'—and this greatly inconveniences passengers. Many of the faults cannot be repaired on-site."

Reporter: "How many 'clumps' occur each day?"
Maehara: "I do not know. We do not receive reports on each one."

Reporter: "Is there no enthusiasm for gathering data on such issues?"
Maehara: "Handling clumps while trains are in operation is a longstanding problem that the railway society has been studying, but with breakdowns happening so frequently, we must indeed put more effort into it. We would like to draw on the wisdom of scientists in the city. Seoul Electric is also studying this issue, but there are already more than ten different causes of clumping alone."

As an experiment, we tried recording the [westbound] passing trains headed for Kōgane Station and the [eastbound] passing trains bound for 6-chōme (present-day Dongdaemun History and Culture Park Station). From 6:51 PM, we observed the following departures:

• 6:51 PM, train headed for Kōgane Station
• 7:00 PM, train headed for Kōgane Station
• 7:16 PM, train headed for Kōgane Station
• 7:17 PM, train headed for Kōgane Station
• 7:20 PM, train headed for Kōgane Station
• 7:25 PM, train headed for Kōgane Station

It was not until 30 minutes later that a Wangsimni-bound train finally arrived. It was a small train, with passengers spilling out from both entrances. The train slowly came to a stop, packed so dangerously that it was unbearable to watch. Following that, two Wangsimni-bound trains arrived, and ironically, the third one was nearly empty. For a line that transports 90,000 commuters a day, the operation of the Wangsimni line was nothing short of terribly inefficient, a 'skewer dumpling' style of operation.

Reporter: "What about adjusting train destinations at key points to better manage flow?"
Maehara: "Passengers are uncooperative, and changing the destination in the middle of a route only causes more confusion."

Reporter: "If leaving the task of managing the confusion to lower-level employees results in further disorder, then it would be better to assign staff at key points. The real issue is breaking away from outdated concepts of train operation. It seems we are too bound by conventional practices."

At the train station in Donam-dong there was still a massive crowd of about 400 people waiting. At its peak, the crowd can reach 600. At Jongno 4-Chōme (present-day Jongno 4-ga), another large crowd was waiting. The route, which carries 80,000 daily commuters with only eight cars, was managed relatively smoothly, but the Kōgane Line saw passenger surges that drastically reduced operational efficiency. While passenger management in 'skewer dumpling trains' is going relatively well, there are still issues such as trains pretending to be broken ('moving broken cars'), trains speeding away even though there is still space for more passengers ('jump trains'), trains that ignore waiting passengers at stops ('slipping trains'), and trains running without clear destinations ('black trains'). Clearly, there are still significant gaps in the education of the train operators.

Maehara: "There is clearly a lack of adequate training for the crew, but it seems we are still feeling the aftereffects of having overemphasized the improvement of train turnaround rates for a period. We are determined to make every effort to address this."

While there are certainly ongoing challenges and 'impossible' situations, Maehara’s dedication to his work is evident. He is known for late-night sessions with experts, formulating plans to improve operations. The people of Seoul have great expectations for him as the new senior executive at Seoul Electric.
[Photo: Executive Maehara guiding workers on-site]

[Transcription]

京城日報 1945年8月3日
上手に電車よ走れ
穂積社長と混雑緩和問答
修理困難に閉口

やっと電車が来たかと思うと押し合いへし合い阿鼻叫喚、正しく交通地獄だ。戦う京城府民の『足』の問題は悩みの種である。輸送緩和へなんとか施策はないものか。府民の此の苦情を京電本社へ持ち込み打開究明の二題＝先ず穂積社長の肚を叩いて電車を走らそうとする問答

一掃したい故障車
問：輸送が混雑する根本原因は何か？
答：もとは全車輌の九十五パーセントを動かしていたのが京電の自慢だったが、今は修繕が行き届かない。車輌も足らないモーターも手に入らない、そこで無理に親子電車を引張るのだが無理をするから更に故障が増えるという始末だ。乗務員の欠勤率も揚っている。
問：資材難は仕方ないとしても技術者現役生徒の勤労奉仕も車輌修繕を手伝わしたり労務管理を徹底すれば或る程度混雑は緩和されないか？
答：夫は君、電気会社だけすることかね。最近雨の為に故障車は増えているし修理の手は勿論緊要だし乗務員の身分的安定も考慮せねばならぬ。従業員の食糧、資材斡旋等関係官庁の助力が必要で府民の交通道徳の昂揚も緩和策だ。
問：無駄な人を運ばないようにすればどうか？
答：最近買出し部隊がめっきり増えてきて大きな荷物を持ち込み混雑の一因となっているが、然らばほんとうに用がある人とは何か。買出しも食う為にはどうしてもやらなければならぬ状態だから其の人にとっては無用だとは言えぬではないか。配車ももっと考慮すべきだと思う。
問：事故が増えてきた様だが？
答：一般に注意力が減ってきている。乗務員もそうだ。此の点恐縮している。然し近頃の状態を見ているとまるで野暮人と野暮人の競合だよ。京電は電車を動かすが乗客の交通道徳とか訓練は他にやるべき機関があるではないか。運転手の再教育は必要だと思う。
問：何とか輸送緩和へ京電の決戦施策はないか？
答：いいかね君、食物も少ないと喧嘩をする。輸送も車輌さえあれば問題ない。其の為には修繕の『手』を搔き集めたい。そうすれば元通り復活することは不可能ではない。

芸の無い配車ぶり
紳士車掌前原さん思案投げ首
都心生活に道徳心も明朗性も先ず電車運営の妙味が大きく揺らぐ。京城電車幹部の陣頭指揮に同行。現場の実体を衝く。
『押すな潰れるぞ何言うか、ぼやぼやするな！』
午後五時頃混雑絶頂の黄金町入口で客をさばき乍ら『御順に中へ願います、まだ乗れますから中へ詰めて下さい』懸命に名車掌ぶりを発揮しているのが中年の紳士車掌。これが京電前原常務だ。記者が乞うて混雑電車打開の現場問答に出て貰った姿だ。
『そんなに詰められるかい、人間は荷物じゃないぞ』と怒声が飛んで来て常務の縮んだ首が苦笑する。
『常務も電車てうものに乗りますか』
『冗談ではない。三日にあげず乗っている』
以下馬鹿囃子で締め上げる様にして乗った記者との車中問答。
『この混雑は何とかならんか。此の前も肋骨二本を折って入院した客もある』
『会社の不勉強で決戦輸送に充分の奉仕が出来ず申し訳ない。何と言っても電車が足らない。昨年末の混雑時に較べて現在は更に三割減車している。それに加えて毎日一日出庫した車が故障で入庫するが其の数は二割五分に達している』
『修理能力の強化は出来ぬか』
『工員不足だ』
『工員不足だ、と放っては擱けまい』
『勿論電車も兵器だの信念で工員教育と、工員募集に努力している。近く充足会社としての工員待遇の規定が適用されれば工員も落ちつくと思うが当局の措置も遅い憾みがある』
『それにしても極端に減車した今日、電車の操車技術にも思い切った新構想を行うのは会社として第一の要点ではないか』
『考えてはいるが困難だ』
永楽町では乗客が大分下車して、待っていた客のかなりが乗車出来た。交叉点技術を突っ込んでいる。
『例えば此の線には南大門方面からと西大門方面からの車が二重に集まるので此処迄歩けば幾何か楽に乗れる。もし黄金町入口の二つの乗場を黄金町線側に統合したら車の利用率はぐっと上がると思うが』
『夫は精密に計算してみないと優劣は解らない。高等数学の『組合』の問題だ。それにゴーストップの信号が全然別個の管轄だから厄介だ』
『精密に計算してみたことがあるか』
『それはない。然し電車は交叉点前で止まるのが定石だ。定石を打破してみるのが肝要ではないか』
黄金町四丁目で降りてみる。丁度来合わせた十輌も重なった「親子電車」に『いや端へ向の親子が来ましたね』と常務卿が照れた形だ。先頭の車に原因を訊くとモーターの故障だ。
『大体時々廻ってみて解るのはモーターの故障、制動器、ボール、遮断器と色々の故障の為に大小の団子運転を作っているが之が乗客に大変な迷惑をお掛けしている。現場で修理出来ぬものも多い』
『一日にどれ程団子を作っているか』
『それは解らない。一々報告がない』
『それ位の統計を作るだけの研究熱意はないのか』
『．．．団子の「運行中処理は」電車学会の宿題になっているが、こう故障が頻発しては大いに研究せねばならない。街の科学者の知恵も借りたい所だ。京電でも研究中だが、団子の原因と種類だけでも十数程ある』
試みに二人で黄金町から六丁目方面行きの通過車輌を記録してみる。六時五十一分黄金町行、七時黄金町行、七時十六分続いて黄金町行、七時十七分同、七時二十分同、七時二十五分同、始めてから三十分後にやっと往十里行が来る。しかも小型の両入口にはみ出した客が鈴成りのまま徐行して止まる。危なくてみておれない。続いて往十里行が二台、三台目は皮肉にも空いている。日に九万人の通勤者を運ぶ往十里線の操車はこれでは拙劣此上もない『串団子』運転だ。
『時々要地点で行先変更をやり調節してはどうか』
『乗客が無理解で出来ないものもかえって混乱して収拾がつかぬ』
『混乱を整理するための処置を下級従業員に委せて、混乱するのなら要所に係を配置してやればよいだろう。問題は古い操車通念を打破することだ。どうも操車上の「定石」に囚れているように思う』
敦岩町の停留所は相変わらず長蛇の列でざっと四百名が押しかけている。多い時は六百を超えている。鐘路四丁目でもまた大物長蛇が待っているが、一日八万の通勤者を僅か八輌の車が運んでいる。それでも比較的順調な一本運転に対して黄金町線の客が波状的に殺到するから運用率は全然低下している。ここの乗客整理はうまく行っていた『串団子電車』もさることながら故障を偽った「動く故障車」まだ空いているのに客を振り切って走る「跳び出し電車」停車点の客を無視して行き過ぎる「滑り込み電車」行き先も前後も解らず走る「闇電車」等々まだまだ運転手教育に不充分の處がある。
『全く乗務員教育の足らん處だが一時回車率向上を強調した余波がまだあるようだ。極力努力したいと思っている』
問題は勿論困難と『不可能』の続出かも知らぬが、技術畑に鍛えたという仕事への熱と追及力が充分みられ、陣頭指揮の一方、夜おそく迄専門家と首引で構想を錬ると言う新常務前原鷹氏の仕事ぶりは府民が大いに期待する處だ。

【写真＝現場で整理員指導中の前原京電常務】

The original source can be checked out at the National Library of Korea, which I visited in September 2023 to take the following photos of the newspaper copies:

Colonial regime called for intensified Imperialist training to make Koreans more ‘Japanese’ to address low morale, high turnover rates, and black market activities among Korean forced laborers in 1944 Japan

This 1944 wartime editorial, written by the staff of the Keijo Nippo newspaper, calls for Japanese-Korean unity as it addresses the discriminatory attitudes that Japanese people held against Korean forced laborers in mainland Japan. The article attempts to present a balanced critique, admonishing both Koreans and Japanese for their inability to get along. It scolds Koreans for seeking equality while also chastising Japanese for harboring a superiority complex. However, the overall tone of the article is far from balanced, as it is much more critical of Koreans than of Japanese. That is understandable, given that Keijo Nippo was the propaganda organ of the Imperial Japanese colonial regime which ruled Korea from 1905 to 1945.

As mentioned in this editorial article, Korean forced laborers in Japan apparently had gained a reputation for their involvement in black market activities and high turnover rates in mining camps. The historic Sado gold mine was one of many such mining camps that were notorious for the abusive treatment of forced laborers. These laborers likely resorted to the black market to secure basic necessities such as food, clothing, and shelter—needs that, by the editorial writers' own admission, were not adequately met.

To modern readers, the obvious solution to these issues would be to improve working conditions and treat the laborers more humanely. However, the editorial staff instead callously called for intensified "Imperial education" as the primary solution. This approach aimed to force Japanese culture and State Shinto religion upon the Koreans, with the belief that making them more "Japanese" would lead to greater morality, harder work, and less involvement in illegal activities. Improvements in dining facilities, housing, and clothing were only mentioned in passing as secondary considerations. In fact, 1944 was the year when the colonial regime intensified its religiosity, forcing Koreans to build thousands of Shinto shrines in the midst of a desperate war, despite severe labor and material shortages.

This editorial is noteworthy because, for an article from 1944 discussing Japanese-Korean relations, it is surprisingly frank about the deep-seated prejudices many Japanese held (and still hold) against Zainichi Koreans, including beliefs that they are prone to criminality and laziness. It highlights the long-standing roots of anti-Korean prejudice among the Japanese, which trace back to the colonial period of Korean history.

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) April 7, 1944

Editorial

**Strive for Total Harmony Between Japanese and Koreans**

Recently, there have been numerous criticisms concerning the thoughts and actions of Koreans residing in mainland Japan. Director-General Tanaka, who recently returned from attending the assembly, has pointed this out as well. The issue appears to revolve around the frequent engagement of Koreans in black-market dealings and the high mobility rate of workers in industries such as mining, which has drawn criticism by mainland Japanese people. Unfortunately, to a certain extent, these claims are based on facts that cannot be entirely denied. Of course, it is not only Koreans who commit such black-market activities; there are still some mainland Japanese who lack a sense of discipline and engage in these practices as well. However, the problem lies in the disproportionately high number of Koreans involved in these criminal activities.

The fact that many Koreans engage in black-market activities is, in the end, evidence that they generally have a lower level of education compared to mainland Japanese, lack war awareness, and have not fully embraced the concept of the National Body. Therefore, the only solution is the thorough implementation of Imperial education. However, recent circumstances show that the negative feelings and discriminatory attitudes of the mainland Japanese towards Koreans stem from these issues and have led to a tendency where Koreans are viewed with a biased perspective in all matters. It is evident that the Japanese, too, have their share of misunderstandings, and there is a sense of emotional stubbornness that cannot be ignored. In other words, there seems to be a tendency to make hasty judgments based on preconceived notions, leading to a form of prejudice.

The less educated and less understanding the Koreans are, the more the Japanese, who play the role of the elder brother, must approach them with warmth, kindness, and generosity. The Japanese must embrace and guide them with a broader, more tolerant mindset. In short, there is a lack of mutual affection and harmony. This is not only true for the Japanese, but Koreans also need to engage in self-reflection.

The high mobility rate of workers in industries such as mining ultimately boils down to a mental issue within Koreans themselves. At the same time, a significant part of the problem stems from the lack of affection and harmony in the attitudes of the Japanese towards Koreans, which should have been the foundation of their relationship.

However, it should be noted that there is still much room for research and improvement regarding the guidance and management of the Korean population residing in mainland Japan, both at the Government-General of Korea and the relevant institutions in Japan. First and foremost is the training of Koreans. It goes without saying that Imperial training must be carried out at every opportunity in all regions moving forward, and for this purpose, it is essential to enhance the training institutions. Secondly, the improvement of welfare and other management facilities is critical. It is necessary to allow workers who have come without their families to bring them along, and special consideration should be given to improving the dining facilities at workplaces, as well as providing housing, clothing, and other essentials. The relevant authorities should take comprehensive measures in this regard.

Koreans tend to call for equality, while the Japanese tend to harbor feelings of superiority. Both are equally significant shortcomings that require reflection. The Imperial Rule Assistance Association is currently preparing to address this Korean issue and is ready to launch a national movement under the banner of "Total Japanese-Korean Harmony". Some may feel that it is too late to discuss Japanese-Korean harmony now, but total harmony is not only a demand between Japanese and Koreans; it is also a war imperative that must be called for even among the Japanese themselves. In other words, there is no limit to how much we can demand total harmony from the public. We place great expectations on this national movement.

[Transcription]

京城日報 1944年4月7日

社説

内鮮総親和に努めよ

最近内地に在住する半島人の思想や行動についてとかくの批評を聴くようである。議会出席から帰任した田中政務総監もこれを指摘している。問題は半島人側に闇取引きをなすものが多いということと鉱山労働者などの移動率が頗る高いというところに対する内地人側の避難にあるようである。之は或る程度事実であることを遺憾ながら認めないわけにはいかない。勿論闇行為を犯すものは半島人に限られているわけでななく、一部内地人の不心得者もなお依然としてその後を絶たないのであるが、その犯罪数の割合が特に半島人側において多いというところに問題があるのである。

半島人に闇行為者が多いということは結局それだけ内地人に比して一般に教養の度が低く、戦争意識に欠け、国体観念に徹していないという証拠にほかならぬ。従ってその対策は皇民教育の徹底に俟つほかはないのであるが、内地人の半島人に対する悪感情や差別態度がこの辺から出発して、一般に何事に対しても常に色眼鏡を以って半島人を見るという傾向に飛躍している昨今の事態については、内地人側にもまた見逃すことの出来ぬ誤解もあり、捉われた感情の固執があるのではないかと思われる。すなわちそこに一を以って十を律しようという速断的な考え方が殆ど先入主となっている嫌いがあるのではないか。

半島人が教養が低く、理解力の乏しいものであればあるほど兄貴分に当たる内地人はもう一つ温き親切を以ってこれに当たり、もう一つ大きい襟度を以ってこれを抱擁し、指導するていの度量がなくてはならない。要するに相親相和の気持ちが足りないのである。それは内地人に対しても言えることであり、半島人に対しても反省を需めねばならぬことである。

鉱山労務者の移動率が高いということも結局は半島人自体の精神の問題に帰着するが、また相親相和に出発すべき内地人の半島人に対する態度に、いろいろの意味において欠けるところのものがあることも大きな原因をなしている。

しかしながら内地在住の半島人問題は総督府においてもまた内地における関係機関においても指導と管理の徹底を示すところにまた大きな研究の余地が残っていることを知るべきである。まず第一に半島人の錬成である。この皇民錬成は今後機会ある毎に各所においてなすべきは勿論であって、そのためには錬成機関の充実を行う必要を痛感する。第二には厚生その他の管理施設の充実である。家族を伴わぬ労務者に家族を伴わせることも必要であり、職場における板場の改善、住宅、衣料などの特別配慮もいうまでもなく肝要である。関係当局はこの意味において万全の対策を講ずべきであろう。

半島人はとかく、平等ということを叫びたがる。内地人はとかく優越感を抱きたがる。何れも同じく反省するに足る欠点である。大政翼賛会では近く、この半島人問題をとりあげ、内鮮総親和というべき国民運動を展開すべく準備中であるという。今ごろ内鮮融和でもあるまいといった印象を受けるものもあるかもしれぬが、総親和ということはひとり内鮮人間に要求されるものでなく、内地人同志間にも求めらるべき戦争の要請である。すなわち総親和ということはいかに声を大にし、幾度回を重ねて国民に求めても、これに過ぎるという問題ではない。われらはこの国民運動に多大の期待をかけたい。

Source: https://archive.org/details/kjnp-1944-04-07/mode/1up

Korean forced laborers worked the Gyeongsan cobalt mine under Japanese control from 1940 to 1945, which later became the site of a massacre of political prisoners in 1950 at the onset of the Korean War

This article from 1943 highlights Korean forced laborers in a Japanese-owned cobalt mine located in what is now Gyeongsan City. While recent news coverage has covered the controversy over the Korean forced laborers in the Sado Gold Mine, this article reminds us that, for every prominent mine like Sado Gold Mine, there were probably many other Imperial Japanese mines like it that receive much less public attention, but were also egregious in their use of Korean forced labor.

Female Korean workers descending the mountain of the cobalt mine.

According to the article, the laborers' work environment was heavily militarized like a prison camp. Like in the rest of colonial Korea, everyone was required to perform the mandatory daily 7 am and 12 noon prayers. There were usually loud sirens marking those two times of the day, and you had to immediately stop what you were doing and perform the prayers. The 7 am Kyūjō Yōhai ritual (宮城遥拝) involved deeply bowing several times in the direction of the Imperial Palace in Tokyo while standing, vowing loyalty to the Emperor. The noon prayer was a moment of silence in honor of the Imperial Japanese soldiers.

The laborers had only three rest days each month. These 'weekends' were filled with mandatory indoctrination sessions to enforce State Shinto religious practices and Japanese language classes. In a typical colonial tactic of pitting colonized people against each other, the laborers were divided into 'workplace patriotic groups'. Collaborators were recruited and appointed to control each group on behalf of the colonizers.

These patriotic groups were pitted against each other in competitions to curry favor with their bosses. They competed to be the most productive, efficient, and punctual in the mine. Fierce competition led one group to propose working for free on public holidays and donating their entire day's pay toward the war effort. This obsequious proposal was implemented and enforced across the entire labor force.

Patriotic groups (JP: aikoku-han, KR: aeguk-ban, 愛國班) were established not only in this mine, but also in neighborhoods and companies all over Korea to enforce colonial rule. All patriotic groups belonged to the Korean Federation of National Power (国民総力朝鮮連盟, 국민총력조선연맹), which functioned as the one and only political party of Korea.

After the Korean War, the mine became the site of the Gyeongsan Cobalt Mine Massacre (Namu Wiki article link) of July to September 1950, when the South Korean government brought political prisoners to the mine, beat, shot, and burned them with flame-throwers, and threw down the mine shaft, which was then dynamited to obscure evidence. During the military dictatorships and repressive regimes of President Rhee Syngman, General Chun Doo-hwan, and President Park Chung-hee, these atrocities were kept secret and surviving family members silenced. It was only in the year 2000 under the presidency of Kim Dae-jung that a special law related to the Jeju Uprising, another Korean War massacre site, was passed and all bereaved families members were finally encouraged and invited to register as such.

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) August 28, 1943

**Visiting the facilities to witness the increased production of special minerals (2)**

*The Noble Drug of the Ore World*

*Increased Production of Cobalt Ore*

**The Story of the Patriotic Mine**

It was January 1940 on a snowy day. A person from mainland Japan, accompanied by a hunting dog setter, was seen near the site of an abandoned gold mine in Amnyang-myeon (압량면, 押梁面) of Gyeongsan County, North Gyeongsang Province, which had long been idle. While casually approaching the abandoned mine with a hunting rifle on his shoulder, the dog, which had been walking ahead, suddenly fell into the shaft of the former mine, which had filled with groundwater to a depth of more than forty feet, turning it into a well. The man hurriedly ran to a nearby village for help and eventually managed to rescue his dog. During this process, he noticed a strange ore among the high piles of waste rock by the roadside. This ore turned out to be cobalt ore, which has since come into the spotlight as a prominent mineral, and the hunter from mainland Japan was none other than Mr. Shūzō Ninomiya, the owner of the current Patriotic Cobalt Mine.

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Initially, world production of cobalt was thought to be limited to certain regions: Canada 29%, France 26%, India 12%, and British Rhodesia (in Southern Africa) 33%. Although there were minor yields in Yamaguchi, Hyōgo, and Ehime Prefectures in Japan, and small quantities associated with gold and silver in arsenopyrite in Korea, these were so minimal that they were not economically viable to exploit.

However, cobalt, a precious resource often compared to a noble drug, is crucial for manufacturing scientific weapons under wartime conditions, serving as a special steel raw material with low wear for pistons, shafts, and cylinders. It is also an essential resource as a catalyst for synthetic oil and rubber. Therefore, the discovery of a vein with an estimated grade of [censored]% and an extension of [censored] kilometers was a significant stimulus to the concerned parties.

Thus, in January 1941, the "Patriotic Cobalt Mine" was formally registered. Coincidentally, the beloved dog that had led to the discovery of the mine died suddenly, adding a potential future legendary element to the mine's story.

Regardless, the military took a keen interest in the mine due to the ongoing war situation, and rapid production expansion began in January 1942 with their support.

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The journalist was granted special permission to tour the site with Mr. Ninomiya. While the exact production volume, facilities, plans, and labor details cannot be disclosed, it was astonishing to see the development progress achieved in just two years since securing a loan of [censored] million yen.

Out of the current labor force of [censored] people, [censored] are women and girls from the workers' families, and their good attendance record and operating rate of [censored]% reflect their deep commitment as wartime mine workers. This achievement is undoubtedly the result of enthusiastic guidance and constant training, as demonstrated by the military-style command of "Kiwotsuke! (Attention!)" upon the journalist's arrival at the office, followed by the mine owner's acknowledgment with "Keirei! (Salute!)" and the order to "Yasume! (At ease!)" before resuming work.

The daily routine includes a morning worship similar to that at Tatsushiro Mine, with Kyūjō Yōhai (prayers to the Imperial Palace), worshiping the mountain gods, silent contemplation, followed by instructions from the section managers. On the 8th, 18th, and 28th of each month, special training days are held with returning veteran lieutenants as instructors, conducting individual and group training. The managers also rotate through the different sections and conduct lectures on current events. What is particularly noteworthy about this mine are the workplace patriotic groups. These groups are organized by teams at each site with the team leader becoming the patriotic group leader. The groups hold informal Japanese language classes during lunch and meetings to facilitate communication between management and workers.

It goes without saying that all employees and workers wear traditional jika tabi footwear and kyahan leg wraps. However, they also uniformly have shaved heads, a practice initiated by the staff to set an example, which quickly spread throughout the workplace patriotic groups, resulting in everyone having shaved heads.

As an example of upward communication, during the recent collection of donations for the death of Admiral Yamamoto and the heroic defense of Attu Island by General Yamasaki's forces, the workplace patriotic groups originally proposed a plan to contribute a certain percentage of income. However, a decision was made at a meeting of team leaders to work on public holidays without pay with the resolve to "die in battle on any day", donating the entire day's income as a contribution. This resulted in a sacred sum of 1,200 yen being donated.

These efforts reflect the effectiveness of the workplace groups and the manifestation of a total mobilization movement from the ground up, also showing that they recognize the current wartime circumstances.

However, the mountain is still young. With the expansion of production facilities in full swing as the increased production period approaches, material procurement is progressing smoothly, and groundbreaking production facilities are expected to be completed soon. Plans for special bonuses during the increased production period with competitions for rewards for high work efficiency, perfect attendance, and no tardiness are also finalized. As the workers' enthusiasm for the upcoming increased production period reaches a peak, the mine is thriving with activity, unaffected by the baseless rumors circulating in the streets. In the near future, production is expected to double, which aligns with the urgent needs of wartime Japan. (Special Correspondent Watanabe)

*Photo: Female mine workers descending the mountain*

[Transcription]

京城日報 1943年8月28日

特殊鉱増産を現地に視る（２）

鉱石界の高貴薬

コバルト鉱に増産の槌

報国鉱山の巻

昭和十五年の一月、それは雪の日であった。慶北慶山郡押梁面の、今は休山と化した一金山の廃坑附近に猟犬セッターを連れた一内地人の姿が見受けられた。猟銃を肩に何気なく廃坑に近づいて二、三歩．．．途端に一足前を進んでいた愛犬が深さ四十尺余地下水が溜まって井戸と化した曾ての廃坑内に転げ落ちてしまった。慌てて附近の部落に駆け戻り助けを求めた上漸く愛犬を救い上げたが、その際路傍に堆高く積まれたズリの中に発見された異様な鉱石に彼の目は輝いたのである。その鉱石こそ今や時代の脚光を浴びる特殊鉱界の花形コバルト鉱であり、狩猟姿の一内地人とは、言う迄もなく現報国コバルト鉱山鉱業主二宮衆三氏であった。

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元来、コバルトの世界生産はカナダ29％、仏蘭西26％、印度12％、南阿の英領ローデシア地方33％という比率で他の地域からは産出しないものといわれていた。尤も本邦内にも山口、兵庫、愛媛の各県下に多少の産出を見、我が朝鮮でも硫砒鉄鉱中の金、銀に多少随伴するのではあるが、それらはあまりにも微量であって、その殆どが採算上企業化し得ないものである。

而もこのコバルトは摩滅度の小なる特殊鋼原料としてピストン、シャフト、シリンダー等決戦下の我が科学兵器製造上、高貴薬にも比すべき貴重資源であり且つ人造石油、合成ゴムの触媒としても極めて重要資源なのである。斯かる折柄、品位〇、〇％推定鉱脈延長〇キロの同鉱山が発見されたことは、関係方面に対し大きな衝動を与えるには十分であった。

かくて十六年一月『報国コバルト鉱山』として正式に登録されたが、この登録の完了と同時に不思議にもかの愛犬が頓死したことは、この山の発見に絡む一挿話として、或は将来に於ける山の伝説的物語ともなろうか。

さて、それは兎も角として、時局柄この山へ最も関心と期待を寄せたのは軍部で、その援助によって十七年一月始業、急速な増産が進められているのである。

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記者は特に許されて鉱主二宮氏に案内され、仔細に視察することを得たが、遺憾ながら茲にその生産量は勿論、生産施設や計画、労務について記述することを得ない。併しその開発ぶりが、〇百万円の融資を受けて以来僅か二年の間にこれ程迄に急速に進められた、ということについては驚嘆せざるを得なかったわけだ。

現在稼働労務者〇〇〇名のうち〇〇〇名はその家族たる婦女子であり、その出勤率を含めてもなお稼働率〇〇％という好成績は、流石に彼等が時局鉱山労務者としての認識に徹底していることを物語るものであるといえよう。勿論その稼働率の好成績も熱意ある指導と絶えざる錬成の結果によるものであることは断るまでもない。それは記者が鉱主に案内されて事務所に到着したとき先ず『気を付けっ』の軍隊式号令に迎えられたことによっても判るのである。そして『敬礼っ』鉱主の答礼を以て『休めっ』再び執務は続けられるという調子である。そこで、茲の錬成を簡単に紹介しよう。

始業前の朝拝は達城鉱山同様、宮城遥拝、山神拝礼、黙祷、係課長の訓示であるが、毎月八、十八、二十八の日は特別錬成日として帰還勇士の中尉を教官として各個教練、部隊教練を実施している。そして各課長が各区を巡回、時局講演を行っているが特に変っているのは職場愛国班である。それは各現場の組毎に班を組織し組長が班長となり昼食時、現場に於いて固苦しくない国語の教授を行うほか随時常会を開き上意下通と下意上通に努めているのである。

職員も鉱員も全部が地下足袋、巻脚絆であることは云わずもがなだが、それらの全員がまた一様に丸刈りであることもこの職場愛国班の徹底による結果である。即ち職員の側から提唱された丸刈り励行は職員の率先垂範と共に全職場愛国班に伝えられ、その申合せとなって瞬く間に全員が丸坊主化してしまったのであった。

また下意上通の一例として、去る日山本元帥の戦死、アツツ島山崎部隊の玉砕に際して行われた健艦献金には当初事務所側から収入の幾パーセント宛かを拠出という形式による旨を職場愛国班に図ったのであるが職場班班長会議の結果、公休日を休まず『一日戦死』の覚悟で働き抜き、その全収入を献金としようということに一決。即座に全班に伝えられ、その結果は一千二百円の聖なる汗の結晶が献金されたのである。

これらは職場班の効果であると共に所謂下より盛り上がる総力運動の顕現であり同時に時局認識の表われとしても注目に値するものであろう。

しかし山はまだ若い。増産期間を目前に控えた今、山は生産施設の拡充に多忙の真っ最中だ。幸い資材の入手は順調で近く画期的増産施設完成の見透しもついている。増産期間中の特例給与として職場能率競争、無欠勤、無遅刻者への表彰方法等の計画も出来上がった。初めて迎える増産期間への労務者の情熱も愈々高潮し、世にこの山のことども発表されざるが故の、巷間に流布される愚かなデマを他所に、山は極めて明瞭に活気づいている。近い将来にその出鉱量は恐らく倍加するであろう。そしてそれはまた戦時日本の切実な要求でもあるのだ。（渡辺特派員記）【写真＝山を降りる鉱婦たち】

Source: https://archive.org/details/kjnp-1943-08-28/mode/1up

Pro-Japanese Korean colonel (신태영)’s full 1943 speech offering Koreans redemption from their “shame” inherited from ancestors who made them “like cats and dogs” that seek safety and parental attachments over national duty, giving them a chance to volunteer in the Imperial Army

Throughout 1943 in colonial Korea, the main national newspaper of the country, Keijo Nippo (Gyeongseong Ilbo), was filled with war propaganda encouraging young Korean men to enlist in the Imperial Japanese military to fight Britain and America in the Pacific War. This article is just one of many such pieces of wartime propaganda published in 1943, but this speech particularly stands out in that it was written by a prominent pro-Japanese ethnic Korean military official (Colonel Shin Tae-young, aka Hirayama), and it contains a lot of self-hating, explicit language demeaning Korea and Koreans while encouraging young Koreans to become Japanese and volunteer to fight for Imperial Japan. 

Lieutenant Colonel Shin Tae-young, aka Hirayama

Hirayama had a long, distinguished in the Imperial Army which started around 1909 and lasted throughout the entire period of the Imperial Japanese colonization of Korea from 1910 to 1945. Interestingly, he went on to become Lieutenant General in the South Korean Army and Minister of National Defense of South Korea in 1952 and was eventually buried with honors in the Seoul National Cemetery, which is a heated point of controversy, as many Koreans believe that he was a traitor who does not deserve to be honored as a Korean national hero. I shared the first part of his memoir in a previous post. This is the second part of his memoir, which was published on November 18, 1943, the day after the first part was published.

Hirayama's rant can be a tedious read, but let's hone in particularly on what he says about Koreans. Hirayama accuses Koreans of being complacent and indifferent like spectators toward the war, being hypocritical for demanding more political rights but evading their responsibilities by making excuses for not enlisting, neglecting national duty, and cultivating a servile and selfish mindset. He blames these transgressions on the shame that Koreans supposedly inherited from their ancestors: a culture with a "soft, scholarly lifestyle" that places family above nation, a parental attachment to their children that is so strong it amounts to "animalistic love", and a concern with safety that amounts to "becoming like a dog or a cat".

Hirayama weaves in some Korean history by mentioning the Qing invasion of Joseon of 1636-1637 and bringing up obscure historical figures from that event such as Jeong Gwang-gyeong, Yun Jip, and Kim Ryu as examples of corrupt Korean officials who were dishonorable and shameless, as if to imply that modern Koreans inherited their national shame from ancestors like these figures.

Hirayama then offers Koreans a way to redeem themselves and free themselves of this inherited ancestral shame: by volunteering and enlisting in the Imperial Japanese Military, which would instill in them the Japanese spirit and discipline and fully transform them into loyal, pure Japanese people, thereby achieving true Japanese-Korean unification. 

Hirayama then makes some threats against Koreans in his rant. He says, "Koreans must realize that their own actions have always led to the downfall of Korea", as if to preemptively blame the Koreans for the defeat of Imperial Japan, if it happens. Towards the end of the rant, he warns that, if any Korean student has to be forcibly conscripted because he didn't volunteer, then the honor of Koreans will be completely tarnished. Thus, Koreans are supposedly collectively responsible for their actions as a group, rather than as individuals, so if any Korean fails to volunteer, then all Koreans have to suffer the consequences of the loss of honor because of that one Korean individual's treacherous actions.

Hirayama denies being bribed by authorities or requested by the Imperial military to publish this speech, but his decades-long career with the Imperial Army and prominent rank seem to indicate that he has already received many favors from the colonial authorities and the Imperial Army for his many years of collaboration.

It's especially striking how dark and ominous the tone of Part 2 is compared to Part 1, which has more of a personal, heartfelt tone. It's also interesting that Hirayama identifies himself more as a Korean in Part 2, and identifies himself more as a Japanese in Part 1. The two parts of the memoir seem to depict a complex man with many inner contradictions and conflicts, straddling and attempting to reconcile two different cultures and ethnicities: Korean and Japanese.

Note: "Yamato people" refers to ethnic Japanese people throughout the memoir.

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) November 18, 1943

The Future of Korea Depends on the Students (Part 2)

Memoir by Imperial Army Lieutenant Colonel Hirayama Hoei, an ethnic Korean

Decide Without Hesitation!

The only way forward is to become loyal and good Imperial subjects

As the Manchurian Incident evolved into the China Incident, the sincerity of Korean patriotism was recognized. As a prerequisite for the implementation of the conscription system in Korea, the special volunteer soldier system was introduced, and many volunteers have already participated in actual combat. These special volunteers have demonstrated their true value as members of the Imperial Army, proving themselves equal to the pure Yamato (Japanese) people. As the Greater East Asia War progresses, the number of volunteers has dramatically increased each year. The patriotism of the Korean people as a whole has reached its peak. As a result, the long-standing desire of Koreans for the implementation of the conscription system has been realized with the promulgation of the relevant laws in the midst of the Greater East Asia War. This system is scheduled to be implemented starting next year, with compulsory education set to commence in 1946.

When comparing this to the state of internal Korean-Japanese relations from the time of the annexation of Korea until very recently, it must be recognized that this represents a rapid and significant transformation for Korea. We must be confident that the foundation for Japanese-Korean unification has already been established. In times of peace and security, there were calls for the implementation of compulsory education, the establishment of a conscription system, and the granting of political rights. However, when faced with a national crisis of life and death, there were those who resorted to pointless arguments to evade their responsibilities. Can Koreans, both now and in the future, truly live their lives this way?

Today's Greater East Asia War is a decisive battle where the entire Greater East Asian population, risking their lives, is fighting against the long-standing enemies of three hundred years, the United States and Britain. The billion people of Greater East Asia are fighting with all their heart and soul. Can Koreans alone remain complacent and indifferent like spectators? If the Empire loses this battle, the billion people of Greater East Asia will face extinction. Can Koreans alone believe that they can prosper?

Given the current situation, all people within the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, regardless of their location or circumstances, must transcend all emotions and personal interests. Without any excuses, this is the autumn when both the old and young, men and women, must rise, unite, and dedicate their lives to the destruction of the United States and Britain. It is truly disheartening to see some people making petty excuses regarding the newly promulgated special volunteer temporary recruitment regulations. At the very least, it makes me feel deeply ashamed to have been born in Korea. What a pitiful state this is!

Modern Koreans, especially qualified students and their parents, siblings, and other family members, should be genuinely fueled by patriotism and deeply understand the current situation. They should truly think about themselves and their families, be aware of the shame of Korea, and awaken to their mission as Japanese people. If this is the case, regardless of the content of the authorities' talks on the laws, whether it is in the form of voluntary enlistment or forced conscription, whether they are to be officers or ordinary soldiers, they should not be concerned with such trivial matters. Rather, they should compete against each other to be the first to join the military ranks.

Moreover, the current special temporary recruitment of volunteers is an unprecedented and significant favor for Korea, providing absolute light and hope for Korea's future. Let us reflect deeply on this together. How much do you think the Imperial Army is mobilizing in the current Greater East Asia War? Even considering just the occupied territories, it is common sense to imagine that the number reaches millions. Despite moving such a large force, it is clear that there are still ample human resources available, considering that, as in peacetime, only able-bodied men aged twenty are required to serve in the military.

In such circumstances, what difference would it make to mobilize five or six thousand Korean students? It is common sense that moving a large force requires a significant number of officers. Students from specialized schools and above in mainland Japan enter the army as officer personnel. If Korean students who have studied alongside them are left behind, it would indeed be an insult to Koreans and a form of discrimination against Koreans by the Japanese. Furthermore, most of the students from specialized schools and above, who are set to be conscripted next year, and their families are part of the intellectual and leadership class in Korea.

By becoming officers in the army, these individuals will become the forerunners for the thousands of soldiers who will be conscripted and join the army next year, rapidly achieving Japanese-Korean unification. Moreover, only by receiving military education can these core members truly grasp the Japanese spirit and bear the significant responsibility of leading the future of Korea.

The outcome of the Greater East Asia War has already been determined. An absolutely impregnable strategic stance has been established. No matter how much the United States and Britain struggle, they cannot possibly reverse this overwhelming trend. It does not matter what happens to Italy or if the Soviet Union confronts us; such matters have no bearing on the outcome of the Greater East Asia War. Victory is undoubtedly ours.

Our belief in inevitable victory is unshakable. When the Empire achieves victory, what will those Koreans who have adopted their current attitude have to say for themselves? They will likely find no place to set foot within the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. Conversely, can they now really turn to the United States or Britain? Koreans must realize that their own actions have always led to the downfall of Korea.

Moreover, if even one person fails to volunteer and is looked down upon, do you think your juniors will be able to study alongside students from mainland Japan without feeling disgrace? Do you believe that such disloyal Koreans deserve higher education beyond the level of specialized schools? Those hesitant to volunteer have various complicated reasons. While there may be some truth in these reasons, the fact remains that if modern Koreans truly awaken to the current situation and willingly dedicate their lives to the Empire, these issues should soon be resolved as a natural consequence. And if, after displaying such loyalty as Imperial subjects, these issues remain unresolved, then it would be appropriate to make demands openly.

In any case, the survival of Korea lies in the hands of Koreans themselves. The path that Koreans must take should be paved by Koreans themselves. The reason I am speaking out so passionately is not because I have been requested by the military or bribed by the authorities. It is simply because, as one of the Emperor's subjects and particularly as a Korean, I cannot remain indifferent in the face of this situation. I was born in Korea and am well acquainted with Korean circumstances. When I dissect the psychology of those who are hesitant to express their willingness to volunteer, I can assert without hesitation that their various excuses are merely pretexts to avoid volunteering.

Historically, Korea has been characterized by an excessively misguided sense of familial attachment. Apart from the modern youth, anyone who is older will likely be familiar with the Qing Invasion of Joseon. This major event in Korean history occurred 308 years ago. Qing troops invaded Korea, and the king, along with his high officials, retreated and took refuge in Namhansanseong Fortress. The Qing troops besieged the fortress for forty-five days, placing Korea in a dire crisis of survival.

In such a national emergency, there was not a single person who earnestly tried to resolve the difficult situation. Arguments and debates ensued, with everyone stubbornly adhering to their own opinions, resulting in mere verbal conflicts. Jeong Gwang-gyeong, the Seungji (a high-ranking official), upon hearing that his elderly father’s place of refuge was attacked by the Qing troops, submitted his resignation, saying, "My mind is in chaos, my spirit is already scattered, and I am unable to fulfill my duties," and he returned home. Vice Chancellor Yun Jip, an extreme advocate of war who even attempted to kill a peace advocate, also lost his composure when he heard that the enemy had invaded Namyang, where his grandfather, wife, and siblings had taken refuge. He claimed, "I have lost my mind, my senses are confused, I have lost my sanity, and I cannot perform my duties," and requested to be relieved of his position.

An extreme example is the then Prime Minister and Chief of Staff, Kim Ryu. The queen had taken refuge on Ganghwa Island, and despite the king being worried about the lack of military preparations and struggling day and night with war expenses and provisions, Kim Ryu's private residence was guarded by government troops. His wife traveled around in a sedan chair, and his wealth was said to amount to seventy cartloads. This was the behavior of the nation's prime minister. He placed his own interests above those of his lord, his family above the nation. There was neither national honor nor shame in such conduct.

I do not believe that all Koreans are like this, nor do I think that the Korean spirit is inherently this way. As history has shown, Koreans possess a sense of righteous indignation and a latent spirit to live for a noble cause. However, years of a soft, scholarly lifestyle have ultimately led to a neglect of national duty and the cultivation of a servile and selfish mindset, which has persisted to this day. Modern Korean parents have a tendency to rely excessively on their children. What parents expect from their children is the eternal continuation of their lineage. The meaning of eternal continuation is not only the flourishing of descendants and the unbroken continuation of the lineage, but it must also naturally include the preservation of the family's honor.

However, today's Korean parents and grandparents are filled with the desire to rely on their descendants as they age. They are not content unless they keep their children and grandchildren close, like flowers to be admired, always under their care. If a child tries to engage in any manly endeavor, they are immediately stopped and led into passivity and retreat. It is hard to understand the mindset of parents who have children merely to rely on them in old age and to be taken care of by them. It is truly a disgraceful and laughable lack of spirit, something to be despised. Parents and grandparents cannot live forever, but the lives of their descendants are long. Parents should abandon their selfish wickedness and be content with praying for the future prosperity of their children.

Unlike the feudal era of the past, especially in modern times when the world is the stage, what do you intend to achieve in a tiny place like Korea? The love of parents who want to keep their children attached to them is something even dogs and cats possess. Humans should not be drowned in such animalistic love. Filial piety to parents is not a duty or a law; it is a morality based on natural reason. It must arise from the heart, without the need for parental demands. Filial piety is the foundation of human morality. However, being in perpetual attachment to one's parents is not the entirety of filial piety.

Modern young men, break away from the old ways! Your stage is vast and wide open. Break down outdated customs, and with firm determination, persuade your parents and grandparents, and boldly seize this once-in-a-lifetime opportunity. The fate of success or failure rests on your shoulders.

Some have said that they will not enlist even if conscripted. What a despicable and shameful mindset! Are you content to be safe, even if it means being trampled, kicked, or becoming like a dog or a cat? Do you not understand the meaning of conscription? Being conscripted does not necessarily mean you will be working only in Korea or mainland Japan. Why would conscription be necessary in places like Korea and mainland Japan, which have such poor resources? Even if conscripted, you will inevitably go to the front lines and work alongside brave soldiers. You will go to the battlefield, whether you are fighting with swords and guns or working with shovels, hammers, and pickaxes. You must also be prepared to face enemy air raids. You will need to receive the baptism of artillery fire from the enemy. Whether you die gloriously as an Imperial soldier who does not know when he will die, or die as a forced conscript, which is more honorable? If even one forced conscript emerges among Korean students, the honor of Koreans will be completely tarnished.

Humans are living beings who live by conviction. Where there is conviction, there is effort, hope arises, security accompanies, and there is joy. Our only path is to dedicate our lives to serving the Emperor and the nation as loyal Japanese subjects. We must firmly hold this conviction. It is absolute and unconditional. The time is imminent. Let us decide quickly and without hesitation.

[Transcription]

京城日報 1943年11月18日

朝鮮の将来は学徒に懸る（下）

半島出身陸軍中佐平山輔英 （手記）

躊躇なく決心せよ

唯一途、忠良の臣民たれ

一面満州事変より支那事変となるに及び朝鮮人の愛国の至誠が認められ、朝鮮に於ける徴兵制度実施の前提として特別志願兵制度が実施せられ、既に幾多の志願兵が実戦に参加しているのであるが、これ等特別志願兵がよく皇軍の一員としてその真価を発揮し純粋大和民族と同等遜色がなきのみならず大東亜戦争に及び逐年志願者の数も激増し、朝鮮人全体の愛国の熱も最高調に達していることを認められたので、我等朝鮮人の多年の宿望たる朝鮮に於ける徴兵制度実施に関する法令が大東亜戦争の真最中に発布せられて、明年度より実施の段取りとなって居り、続いて義務教育の実施も明後昭和二十一年度に控えるようになったのである。

之を韓国併合当時から、極めて最近までの内鮮関係に較べて見ると朝鮮に取っては急速なる一大変革であって内鮮一体の基礎は既に確立されていると確信せねばならぬ。無事太平の時にはやれ義務教育を実施してくれ、徴兵制度を布いてくれ、やれ参政権を与えてくれなどと得手勝手な熱を吹いて居りながら、いざ国家の危急存亡の一大危局に直面すると何の彼のと屁理屈を言い出して、自己の責任を遁れようとしている。こんなことで果して現在及び将来の朝鮮人が人生として生き抜くことが出来るであろうか。

今日の大東亜戦争は三百年来の宿敵米英との大東亜全民族の身命を賭しての一大決戦だ。大東亜十億の民族は理屈抜きに心血を注いで闘っているのだ。独り朝鮮人のみが恬然として安閑として傍観的態度を取っていられようか。此の一戦に於いて若しも帝国が負けたならば、大東亜十億の民族が滅亡するのである。独り朝鮮人のみが繁栄し得るものと信じていられるであろうか。

今日の情勢は大東亜圏内に於ける民族である限り、その處と事情との如何に拘わらず、凡ての感情、凡ての個人的利害関係を超越し、凡ての理屈を抜きにして老いも若きも女も男も蹶然起ち一致団結して米英撃滅の為に身魂を注いで闘い抜くべき秋である。今回発布せられた特別志願兵臨時採用規則に就いても動もすれば屁理屈を言い度がるものが相当にあるのを見るのは誠に慨嘆に堪えないことであって、少くも私自身が此の朝鮮に生れたことが恥ずかしくて堪えられないのだ。何という情けない状態であろう。

現代の朝鮮人わけても適格者たる学徒並びにその父母兄弟姉妹にして真に憂国の真情に燃え、現時局を深く認識し真に一身一家を思い、朝鮮の恥を知り、日本人としての使命に目覚めて居るとしたら、法令に関する当局の講話の内容がどうあろうと、自由志願の形式であろうと強制であろうと、幹部要員ではなく唯の一兵であろうと、そんな些末なことに頓着することなく、先を争って軍門に投ずべきではないか。

況や今回の特別志願兵の臨時採用が朝鮮のためには画期的一大恩典であって朝鮮の将来に絶対なる光明と希望とが与えられているに於いておやである。お互いによくよく反省して見ようではないか。今の大東亜戦争に於いて皇軍は一体どの位動いていると思うのか。占領地域のみを以て考えて見ても幾百万という数に上っていることは常識として想像着くことであろう。その大兵を動かして居りながら、人的資源は未だ未だ十二分に余裕のあることは、平時と同様満二十歳の壮丁に限り兵役に服している現実から考えて見ても明らかではないか。

そのような実情に於いて朝鮮学徒の五千や六千を駆り立てて見た所で何の足しになろう。大兵を動かすのには大量の幹部を必要とすることは常識だ。内地人専門学校以上の学徒はその幹部要員として入営するのだ。今まで机を並べて学んで居った朝鮮学徒が取り残されることは是こそ朝鮮人侮辱であり内鮮差別ではないか。而も明年度に徴兵実施を控えている専門学校以上の学徒並びにその学徒を出したる家庭と言わば例外は別としてその大部分が朝鮮に於ける有識階級であり、指導階級にあるのだ。

それらのものが陸軍の幹部となることに依って明年度徴兵実施に伴い入営する幾万の兵の楔となり内鮮一体の実を急速に成し遂げ得るのみならず、是れ等中堅層のものが軍隊教育を受くることに依ってのみ真に日本精神を把握し将来の朝鮮を背負って起ち得るところの重大なる責任があるのだ。

大東亜戦争の勝敗は既にきまって居る。絶対不敗の鉄壁の戦略態勢が完成されているのだ。米英が如何に藻掻いても此の大勢を挽回することは絶対に出来ない。伊太利がどうなろうとソビエトロシアが立向かって来ようと、そんなことは大東亜戦争の勝敗に何等の影響もない。勝利は正に此方のものだ。

必勝の信念は牢固であるのだ。帝国が戦勝の暁に於いて今日の態度を取った朝鮮人がどの面下げてものを言わんとするのか。恐らく大東亜圏内に於いては足を容るる場所もないであろう。それかと言って今更米、英に走ることが出来ようか。朝鮮を滅亡に導くものは、常に朝鮮人自体であることに気付かなければならぬ。

そればかりではない。一人でも志願に漏れたものが侮った場合諸君の後輩が恬然として内地学徒と机を並べて勉学が出来ると思うのであろうか。又斯くの如き非国民の朝鮮人に専門学校程度以上の高等教育の必要があると思うのであろうか。志願を渋るものの内には種々な込み入った理由を持って居る。それらの理由には反面の真理を認めぬこともない。然し今日の朝鮮人が真に時局に目醒め喜んで身命を皇国の為めに献ぐるに於いては当然の帰結として間もなく解決の出来る問題であろう。又斯くまで皇国臣民としての忠誠を献げて尚且つ解決が着かなかったら、その時こそ堂々と要求し得ることではないか。

何れにしても朝鮮を生かすものは朝鮮人自らの手にあるのだ。朝鮮人の進むべき道は朝鮮人自らが拓くべきではないか。自分が斯くの如く絶叫する所以のものは、何も軍部の依頼を受けたのでもなければ、将亦当局に買収されたのでもない。唯唯皇民の一人でありわけても朝鮮人の一人として此の状態を見ては安閑として居られないからに過ぎないのだ。自分は生を朝鮮に享け朝鮮の事情を能く知っているものの一人として志願の意志を容易に表明しないものの心理を倶さに解剖してみると、色々な屁理屈は志願を遁れんとする口実に過ぎないということを断言して憚らないのだ。

由来朝鮮には甚だ誤れる家庭的執着心が濃厚にある。丙子の胡乱と言えば、現代の青年は別として少しくも年取った人は皆知っていることと思う。今を距る三百八年前に於ける朝鮮の大事変である。清兵が朝鮮に侵入して王様は顕官重臣を引連れて後塵し南漢城に立て籠もって清兵のために取り囲まるること四十五日、朝鮮のためには危急存亡の一大危機に直面して居ったのだ。

斯くの如き国家の大事に当って真剣に此の難局を打開せんとするものは一人も居らなかった。甲論乙駁徒らに各々自己の説を固持し口論のみを以て終始した。都承旨鄭廣敬の如きは、老父避難の地が清兵の難に罹ったと聞いて『方寸錯乱、神魂已に散じ、職責を尽くす能わず』と称して辞表を提出して帰った。副校理尹集は和平論者を叩き斬ろうとまで敦圉いた程の極端なる主戦論者であったに拘わらず、祖父妻子兄弟の避難地南陽に賊軍が侵入したと聞いて是又『心神喪失、視聴迷錯、正気を失えるが如く、任務に堪えない』と言って解職を請うて退去してしまった。

極端なのは当時の総理大臣で参謀総長の職を兼ねて居った金瑬はどうであったか。王妃は江華島に避難し、主君は戦備の薄いのに憂慮し、戦費や兵糧に日夜苦慮せるに拘わらず、瑬の私邸は官軍を以て警護し、その妻は駕轎に乗って往来し、その財は七十駄に及んで居ったというのである。一国の宰相が斯くの如くである。自己あって主君なく、家あって国家なしの態度である。国辱も名誉もあったものではないではないか。

朝鮮人が皆が皆そうとは思って居らぬ、又我々朝鮮人の魂がもとからそうだとは考えない。歴史が証明している通り我々朝鮮人にも義憤が躍動して居り大義に生きんとするの魂が潜在しているのだ。然しながら永年の文弱生活は遂に国家を忘れ利己に走るの卑屈なる精神を生み今日に流れて来て居るのだ。現代の朝鮮の親は余りに子に頼り過ぎる通弊がある。親として子に望む所以のものは、自己の系統を永遠無窮に継続するにある。永遠無窮に継続するの意味は子孫が繁栄して系統を絶やさないことのみを意味するばかりでなく、家門の名誉を辱めないことをも当然含まなければならぬ。

然るに今日の朝鮮の父祖は老いて子孫に頼り度い気持ちが一杯だ。子や孫は花のように観賞物のように何時迄も自分の膝下に置いて置かねば承知しないのだ。何か男らしい仕事でもしようとすると直に差し止めて消極退嬰に導くのだ。一体親が子を設けて老後に於いてその子の厄介になろう、面倒を見て貰おうという親の心理が解せぬではないか。誠に意気地のない、唾棄すべき無気力な笑うべきことである。父祖や両親は何時までも生きていられるものではない。自己の子孫の生命は永い。世の親は利己的な悪を棄てて我が子の将来の繁栄を祈念するを以て満足すべきではないか。

殊に昔のような封建時代なら兎も角も現代の如き世界を舞台に活躍しつつある時勢に於いて猫の額のような朝鮮に於いて何をなそうとするのだ。親が子を腰巾着にしようとする愛情は犬や猫にだって濃厚にある。人間は斯くの如き動物愛に溺れてはならぬ筈だ。子供が親に孝養を尽くすということは義務でもなければ法律でもない。天理に基づく道徳だ。親の要求がなくても心から湧いて出なければならぬ。親孝行は人類道徳の根本である。然し親の腰巾着になって居ることばかりが親孝行ではない。

現代の若き青年よ、旧態を一新せよ！諸君の活舞台は広く広く開かれているのだ。陋習を打破し堅き決心を以て親を老祖父母を説きふせて勇躍千歳一遇の舞台に登れ。この興廃は諸君の双肩に懸っているのだ。

或るものは徴用されても志願はしないと言ったそうだが、何という卑屈な賎むべき慎むべき根性であろう。自己の生命さえ安全であれば、踏まれても、蹴られても犬になっても猫になっても好いというのか。徴用という意味を御存じないのだ。徴用されて必ずしも朝鮮や内地のみで働かされるとは限らない。内地や朝鮮の如き貧弱なる資源を持っている所で、何の徴用が必要であろう。徴用されても必然的に第一戦に往って勇敢なる兵士と共に働くのだ。矢張り戦場へ行くのだ。一方は剣や銃を執って闘い、一方はスコップやハンマや、鶴嘴を執って闘うだけの差なのだ。矢張り敵の空襲を受けることも覚悟せねばならぬ。敵の砲弾の洗礼も受けなければならぬ。何時戦死するか判らぬ立派なる帝国軍人として戦死するのと徴用人として戦死するのと何方が名誉だ。朝鮮の学徒に一人の徴用者が出たとしたら、それこそ朝鮮人の面目は丸潰れだ。

人間は信念に生きる生物である。信念のある所に努力が生じ、希望が湧き、安心が伴い、歓喜があるのだ。我々の生きる道は忠良なる日本臣民として身命を君国に献げて御奉公申し上ぐるにあるのみなのだ。この信念を堅持せねばならぬ。絶対無条件である。期日は眼前に差し迫っている。速やかに躊躇なく決心しようではないか。

Source: https://archive.org/details/kjnp-1943-11-18/page/n2/mode/1up

“Koreans need to assimilate with the Japanese people as soon as possible … There is no other way. This is also the path to our boundless happiness as Koreans!” said Imperial Army veteran 신태영 in 1943 memoir, who later became Minister of National Defense of South Korea and is now buried at Seoul National Cemetery

"As Koreans, we have been given the new mission of becoming subjects of Imperial Japan, uniting completely with the Yamato (Japanese) people, focusing on Japan to develop, protect, and nurture East Asia. To fully fulfill our mission of sweeping away the gloomy atmosphere of today and achieving renewal, it is imperative that we assimilate with the Yamato people as soon as possible and become completely like them. There is no other way. This is also the path to our boundless happiness as Koreans."

Lieutenant Colonel Hirayama Hoei (aka Shin Tae-young)

This quote is from a 1943 memoir written below by a prominent Korean collaborator who was in the Imperial Army for over three decades, rising up to become Lieutenant Colonel in the Imperial Army by the 1940s, and then somehow became Lieutenant General in the South Korean Army and Minister of National Defense of South Korea in 1952 and was eventually buried with honors in the Seoul National Cemetery.

It seems baffling and absurd to me that someone who explicitly pledged allegiance to Imperial Japan and renounced his Korean identity could become a high-ranking government official of the Republic of Korea and be honored at its national cemetery. In the memoir, the future South Korean minister declares that Koreans need to assimilate with the Japanese people and become completely like them. He describes how he transformed from a pure Korean into a fully-fledged Yamato person during his decades-long career in the Imperial Japanese Army. The entire memoir reads like a long, passionate 'love letter' to Imperial Japan, where his disdain for the Korean nation and his Korean ancestors is quite palpable. So why is he still honored at South Korea's national cemetery alongside the graves of Korean independence activists?

There is one Korean news article that discusses this very issue, and one Korean journalist posted a YouTube video of himself visiting the actual grave of the collaborator at the cemetery, expressing his disgust at the situation. Angry comments on the video call for the grave to be dug up. But the video has barely gained any traction online, garnering just over four thousand views in four years. The Korean media seem to be aware of the existence of this memoir in the colonial newspaper, but the actual text of the memoir had not been transcribed or translated beyond the headlines until now.

The author of the memoir was Shin Tae-young (신태영) (his original Korean name) or Hirayama Hoei (平山輔英) (his adopted Japanese name). It was published on the front page of the November 17, 1943 evening edition of Keijo Nippo, the national newspaper of colonial Korea and a propaganda mouthpiece of the Imperial Japanese colonial regime that ruled Korea from 1905 to 1945. The colonial newspaper dedicated over half of the front page to this memoir, indicating the importance the colonial regime attached to it to reach as many Korean readers as possible.

In his memoir, Hirayama describes how he trained and served as an officer in the Imperial Japanese Army for three decades, recounting the hardships he endured to fully assimilate into Japanese culture and prove his loyalty to Imperial Japan. He advocates for military training in Korean schools to instill Japanese spirit and discipline, reflecting the views of other ethnic Korean Imperial Army officers like him, including South Korean dictator Park Chung-hee. He saw the Japanization of the Korean nation as the only way to revitalize it and counteract the perceived cultural and ideological decay among the Korean people.

Can you think of any other instance where a person renounces their ancestral country in writing and through service with a military of a foreign country that tried to erase their ancestral country, then later becomes a government official and high-ranking military official of that same ancestral country, and is buried with honors in its national cemetery? To me, it seems quite paradoxical and unjustifiable.

Note: "Yamato people" refers to ethnic Japanese people throughout the memoir. There is a second part to this memoir which was published on November 18, 1943, in which Hirayama mainly goes on to scold Korean families for being reluctant to send their sons off to war, and severely criticizes the Confucian values of Korean culture. If there is interest, I will attempt to decipher and publish it online.

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) November 17, 1943

Memoir by Imperial Army Lieutenant Colonel Hirayama Hoei, an ethnic Korean (Part 1)

Korean students! Do you not want to feel life and live it to its fullest?

Grasp the iron will!

The destination of our first expedition was Yasukuni Shrine

Recently, the Temporary Recruitment Regulations for Special Army Volunteers in Korea were issued, which gave me the occasion to look back on the past and observe the present. As I did so, something filled me with deep emotion. I sighed with relief, feeling both reassurance and satisfaction. Yet, at the same time, I harbored secret worries.

As an officer of the Imperial Japanese Army, reflecting on the situations and experiences I have encountered over thirty years of military life, I compare today's circumstances and discover a vast light for the future of the Korean peninsula. My thirty years of effort and hope, crystallized from my blood, have not gone in vain. Now, before my eyes, they have materialized, bringing unparalleled honor and pride to our peninsula. Will the modern Korean youth properly reflect on the past, squarely face the present circumstances, feel this honor, and firmly grasp this light? Will they eagerly come forward, as if to say they have been waiting for this moment, and volunteer without exception? This is my concern. I observed their general behavior with the greatest expectation and interest.

It was a long time ago in 1908 when I crossed over to Japan with great hope and ambition, leaving my homeland behind, for the first time to study in the Imperial Army. It was right after the Russo-Japanese War. Korean politics were extremely chaotic, the general level of cultural maturity was very low, and the thoughts of the general public were confused and unsettled. Moreover, the atmosphere between Japan and Korea was genuinely gloomy, casting a shadow over Korea's future.

In such an environment, my 17 classmates and I, along with 26 students from the next batch of students, aspired to the Imperial Army and crossed over east to Japan to study at the Imperial Army Cadet School. Of these comrades, ten returned home influenced by the times and the ideological turmoil, while the remaining stayed and graduated in the first batch in 1914, during the fifth year of Korea's annexation. Our group of 13 and the following year's 20 graduates totaled 33. We were assigned to various divisions nationwide as apprentice officers, and in December of the same year, our group of 13 was commissioned alongside our fellow Japanese graduates.

Our treatment in the military was absolutely non-discriminatory. The guidance from our superiors was extremely kind and meticulous. Our colleagues interacted with us with the utmost sincerity, and our subordinates willingly obeyed us from their hearts. At that time, this treatment of Koreans was an extraordinary privilege and an extreme honor. However, beneath the surface, there were many other viewpoints. Questions lingered, such as whether these Koreans, who had studied in the Empire and become officers, truly possessed the Yamato (Japanese) spirit, fully demonstrated it, and could risk their lives in actual combat. Could they train Japanese soldiers?

The military has many classified matters; would they demonstrate the military spirit and faithfully protect these secrets? Such concerns were deeply latent. Accordingly, we faced many trials depending on the circumstances. Reflecting quietly on these events, it was natural given that Japan and Korea had only just unified, and the general level of cultural maturity was still very low, with the thoughts of hte people not yet unified. However, humans are emotional beings. It is normal for them not to consider the natural course of events as natural. I, too, did not voice it but felt much distress and discomfort in my heart. Given our situation at that time, it could be said that it was also natural to feel this way.

◇―◇

However, when I began to think calmly, I realized that the state Korea had fallen into was not our fault. This was all the fault of our ancestors. Nor was it Japan's fault. Far from being at fault, Japan had actually saved Korea. If Japan's hand had not reached out, Korea would have inevitably fallen into the hands of either Russia, the United States, or Britain. This conclusion led me to discover a causal connection and to firmly consolidate my belief.

We were born in Korea, a corner of East Asia, with an ancient history and a high culture, living as a large, unique community as Koreans. However, for many years, our nation had been ignorant of the trends of the world, becoming superficially ostentatious and weak, internally corrupt to the extreme. We were destined to be swallowed up by Russia, the United States, or Britain sooner or later. If that had happened, far from being an officer of Imperial Japan, I would now be a slave of those nations. If I didn't become their slave, it is doubtful whether I could have even survived.

How could that have been acceptable? Japan and Korea are of the same civilization and race. Moreover, Japan possesses a national polity unrivaled in the world, having shaped a history of three thousand years. The mission entrusted to the Japanese people as human beings is to use their God-given abilities to the fullest on the stage of East Asia, contributing to the development of human culture, especially the welfare and progress of the East Asian peoples. As Koreans, we have been given the new mission of becoming subjects of Imperial Japan, uniting completely with the Yamato people, focusing on Japan to develop, protect, and nurture East Asia. To fully fulfill our mission of sweeping away the gloomy atmosphere of today and achieving renewal, it is imperative that we assimilate with the Yamato people as soon as possible and become completely like them. There is no other way. This is also the path to our boundless happiness as Koreans.

To achieve this, today's Koreans must fully embody the spirit of the Imperial Way, possessing the complete Japanese spirit, and demonstrating the ability to act as Imperial people. I, now having the opportunity to become an officer of the Empire, recognize my mission is not just to fulfill my responsibilities as an officer but also to shoulder the responsibilities of all Koreans.

◇―◇

I am now being tested at an extraordinary crossroads. My every move as an officer of the Empire directly reflects the future of all Koreans. I must be a fully-fledged Yamato person and set a splendid example, demonstrating that there are Koreans who have become Yamato and instilling the belief that Koreans can also become Yamato people. My belief is that, if I can do this, the gloomy atmosphere of today will be swept away, and a clear air will prevail.

For thirty years, I have lived a blood-soaked life of effort, striving to cultivate my character as a Yamato person, working to complete my given duties, and enlightening my fellow Koreans, especially the younger generation. If a Japanese person studied for one hour, I studied for five or ten hours. When I thought the tasks assigned to me were too heavy compared to my abilities, I worked tirelessly to complete them, forgetting both rest and food. For me, it was more about the efficient use of time than about talent. For more than twenty years, I formed a family, but I had no time to look after it. That has been my life.

Even if I write these things, the true hardship and effort involved are unimaginable to anyone but myself, who has experienced and carried them out. Becoming a complete Yamato person as a Korean is not easy. In the summer of 1918, I was promoted to lieutenant three years and eight months after being commissioned as a second lieutenant. A month later, I received orders for mobilization and was sent to Siberia. It was my first deployment. The time had come to demonstrate my dignity as both an officer of the Empire and a Korean. A soldier must face actual combat to prove his worth. It is only after experiencing the baptism of bullets that a person's true value is revealed. No matter how much a Korean, born to ancestors who had drifted into superficiality and decay, claims to possess the pure Yamato spirit and to be Japanese, without actual achievements and evidence, who would trust them?

This once-in-a-lifetime opportunity allowed me to prove that I, a Korean-born person, could truly grasp the Yamato spirit and be pure Japanese. However, I did have personal concerns. My father had passed away half a year before my graduation from the military academy, leaving only my mother and one younger brother at home. Since my commission, I had only returned home once on leave, and I had no idea about the state of my household. There were many unresolved matters that only I could handle. The number of family issues remaining was considerable.

◇―◇

I was called by my regimental commander and I went to his office.

He told me, "You are to be deployed soon. If there is anything regarding your family or any other matter, do not hesitate to tell me. After you leave, I will handle it if possible, so feel free to speak up."

What a deeply compassionate thing to say! I was moved to tears from the bottom of my heart. However, I thought to myself quietly. There were things that could only be settled by myself. Yet, I was now departing by Imperial command. Moreover, this was the time to prove my Japanese identity as a Korean. Now was not the time to be concerned with trivial household matters. Thinking this, I firmly replied, "There is nothing. I will gladly go to Yasukuni Shrine." "I see. Then I'm counting on you," he said.

◇―◇

I landed in Busan and headed for Siberia through Manchuria. Passing through Korea felt like a fateful journey. I was overwhelmed with various emotions. Due to the railroad transport arrangements, I stayed in Busan for two nights without any specific duties. At home, I had only my elderly mother and a younger brother.

In the summer of 1915, the year following my commission, I was granted a ten-day leave to return home. Since then, I had not been back for three years. From then on, I would only meet my family at Yasukuni Shrine. I wished I could have departed a day earlier to bid them a final farewell. I wanted to embrace my mother firmly and, if possible, nurse like an infant one last time. I wanted to look at her face to not forget it. This very thought made my heart break. Such feelings are felt by Japanese and Koreans alike. Perhaps Japanese people might feel them even more strongly. However, I thought to myself: I am representing Koreans in my first expedition.

If I mentioned that I wanted to leave early, people might criticize us Koreans by saying that Koreans are too attached to their families and fear for their lives. I had to be very careful, so I said nothing. I only sent a letter to my brother, asking him to bring our mother to Yongsan Station when I passed through. I spent a night in Busan. The next day around noon, I received a sudden phone call from the station. It was from another officer in my company. The gist of the call was as follows:

The officer asked the battalion commander, 'Lieutenant Shin's (my surname at the time was Shin) family is in Seoul. Since he only has his mother left, why not let him leave a day early to see her?' The battalion commander responded, 'I had never considered that! A passenger train is departing soon. If he comes to greet me, he will miss the departure time. So, let him skip the customary greeting and have him leave immediately. Have him meet his family at Yongsan station at midnight tomorrow.' So, his orders were that I depart immediately.

◇―◇

Since this was what I had hoped for, I had no reason to hesitate given my superior's permission. I left immediately and went to Seoul. I was able to see my mother for about ten hours. With that, I felt at ease. I felt ready to go to Yasukuni Shrine at any time.

At the time, even matters that might seem trivial from a human perspective required Koreans to make a special determined effort. So understandably, you can imagine how much hardship Koreans must have had to endure to become Japanese thirty years ago. I went to Siberia and fought for two years. I am ashamed to say that I did not achieve significant military accomplishments, but I did not act cowardly. I upheld the spirit of an Imperial officer and maintained the dignity of the Korean people. After two years, I returned home. The atmosphere within the military became more positive. However, I could not remain sitting on my laurels. Given the situation in Korea at that time, Koreans still needed to put in a lot of effort. I got married, and as children came one after another, my perspective on life underwent a significant change.

Although the initial destination of my first expedition was Yasukuni Shrine, for better or for worse, I returned alive without going there. But from then on, I felt like I was not truly living. I had already died in Siberia. I was already a skeleton. A dead person should not have sensations. Whether I am twisted or pinched, nothing should hurt. Naturally, there should be no sensations of suffering, sleepiness, or hunger. I worked with that kind of mindset of a dead man. This was for Imperial Japan and for Korea.

◇―◇

Though the term "internal harmony between Japan and Korea" was popular, the path ahead was still long. The shadow remained dark. There were still grievances and dissatisfaction. Even in the military, aside from the 13 of us and the 20 officers from the next class, no successors were produced. Ten years after my commission, part of the Military Service Law was amended, allowing for the establishment of a volunteer conscription system for Koreans. Talented students from Korea, who passed the entrance exams, were admitted to military cadet schools, officer schools, and other military institutions.

Thinking back, after six years of studying in the Imperial Army and ten years of serving, my efforts had finally started to bear fruit, bringing light to the Korean peninsula. What a moving moment it was. I had always believed that the best way for Koreans to become true Yamato people and live with unwavering conviction was to join the military.

◇―◇

I believe it was around 1929 or 1930, before the Manchurian Incident. One day, I was called by the regimental commander and went to his office. He presented me with a document. It asked, "Is it feasible to assign active officers to schools primarily attended by Korean students of at least middle school level to implement military training?" My superior was seeking my opinion on this matter. He asked for my frank opinion in writing with no holding back.

At that time, the general mood of the times strongly advocated for harmony between Japan and Korea. The educated Korean class earnestly desired the implementation of compulsory education and the early introduction of conscription. They submitted petitions to authorities in charge, either individually or through representatives, and even traveled to the central government to negotiate directly.

This enthusiasm from the educated Korean class stemmed from a strong desire to transform the entire Korean population into Imperial subjects as soon as possible, sweep away the gloomy atmosphere, and realize true Japanese-Korean unification. However, given the low level of cultural maturity and numerous ideological considerations in Korea at that time, the authorities repeatedly deemed the requests too early to implement.

◇―◇

In this context, the issue of implementing military training for Korean students arose. I responded:

"Given today's situation, achieving true unity between Japan and Korea requires Koreans to become Imperial subjects as soon as possible. To do this, Koreans must grasp and embody the Japanese spirit as soon as possible. The best way to achieve this is to implement conscription as soon as possible to instill the military spirit. However, it is too early to introduce conscription in Korea. Therefore, at least for now, it is crucial to assign active officers to schools of at least middle school level to provide military training to instill the Japanese spirit and raise a class of leaders. If we keep hesitating by saying that the timing is too early, when will Japanese-Korean unity ever be achieved? There are already some Koreans like me who were not born with the Japanese spirit, because they were originally born pure Korean. It is entirely thanks to military education that a previously pure Korean like myself has become a Japanese today. From this perspective, the only way to make Koreans Imperial subjects as soon as possible is to implement military training in schools. I urge you to implement military training in schools decisively and without hesitation, like cutting through tangled silk with a sharp sword!"

Since the authorities had already established a policy, whether my modest opinion had any effect is another matter. Nonetheless, the following year, military training was experimentally implemented at Gyeonggi High School and Pyongyang High School. After one year, seeing the positive educational effects, the training was gradually extended across Korea, leading to what we now see today.

[Transcription]

京城日報 1943年11月17日

半島出身 陸軍中佐 平山輔英 手記（上）

半島出身の学徒諸子よ、諸君は人生に感じ、人生に生き抜こうとはせぬか？

把握せよ鉄の信念

初陣の目標は靖国神社

此の度朝鮮に陸軍特別志願兵臨時採用規則が発布せられて、私は過去を顧み現在を眺めて、誠に感慨無量なものがある。そしてほっと溜息をつき、ああ是で好かったと安心もし満足もしたのだった。それと同時に心密かに心配もしたのであった。

私は帝国陸軍将校として、軍人生活三十年間に於いて、実際に遭遇した境遇や体験に照らし、今日の状況を比較して、半島の前途に絶大なる光明を発見した。自分の三十年間に於ける血の結晶を以てせる努力と希望とが、水泡に帰せずして今眼前に実現され、我が半島の上に無上の光栄と誇りとが与えられたのだ。現代の半島の青年諸君は果して正しく過去を顧み、現時勢を正視して、この光栄に感じ、この光明を確実に把握し得て、待っておりましたといわんばかりに我れ先にと先を争って、一人残らず志願するの挙に出ずるであろうかどうかということは、自分の蓋し懸念する所であって、最も憂大なる期待と関心とを以て、一般の動行を直視したのであった。

ああ自分が大なる希望と抱負とを以て家郷を振り切って東渡し、初めて帝国の陸軍に学んだのは明治四十一年という誠に古い時代であった。時は日露戦争直後である。朝鮮の政治は極端に乱れ、一般の民度は極めて低く、思想は混乱して定まらなかった。加うるに内鮮間の空気は誠に陰鬱であって朝鮮の将来に混沌たる暗影を投じて居ったのであった。

斯くの如き雰囲気の中に於いて我々同期生十七名と、次期生二十六名は陸軍に志して東渡し先ず陸軍幼年学校に学んだのであった。その同志の内、十名のものは、時代の影響と思想上の動揺を受けて郷里に帰り、兎も角も居残って第一回に陸士を卒えたのは韓国併合第五年目たる大正三年であって、その人員は我々同期生が十三名、翌年度卒業生の次期生二十名であった。合わせて三十三名、是等が全国の各師団に配属せられ見習士官となり同年十二月には全国の内地出身の同期生と肩を並べて我々十三名が任官したのであった。

軍部内に於ける我々の人事上の取扱は絶対に無差別であった。上官の指導も極めて懇切丁寧であった。同僚の交際も骨肉の至情を以てしてくれた。部下も衷心より喜んで服従してくれた。当時としては朝鮮人に対する此の取扱は、破格の恩典でもあり光栄の至りでもあった。然し乍ら是等は表面の問題であって、真実の問題としては又別の観点が多分に含まれて居った。それは、一体此の朝鮮人が帝国に学び将校にはなったものの、果して大和魂が入って居り、完全に之を発揮して身命を賭しての実戦に役立ってあろうか。日本の兵隊の教育訓練が出来るであろうか。

軍隊には機秘密に属する事項が多いのであるが、果して軍人精神を発揮し、立派に之を守り通すであろうか、というような懸念が濃厚に潜在していたのであった。従って事柄に依っては幾多の試練も受けたのであった。是等の事象を捕らえて静かに考えて見た時、内鮮の二つのものが一つになったばかりであり、而も一般の民度は極めて低く、思想の統一せられていなかった当時としては当然のことであった。然し人間は感情の動物である。その当然なことを当然とは考えないのが普通だ。私自身も口には出さないが、心には不愉快を感じた誠に煩悶が多かった。当時の我々としては、これも亦当然といえる節もあった。

◇―◇

然し冷静に考え出すようになった朝鮮が斯の如き状態に陥ったのに決して吾等の罪ではない。これ皆吾等の祖先の罪なのだ。又日本の罪でもない。罪どころか、否寧ろ日本が朝鮮を救って呉れたのだ。日本の手が伸びなかったならば、朝鮮は何れロシアか米、英に呑まれる運命であったのだ、という結論を得た。而して一つの因縁関係を発見して堅き信念に凝り固まるようになった。

我々は東亜の一角朝鮮に生みつけられて、古き歴史を有し、高き文化を作って朝鮮民族としての大きな独自の団体生活を営んでおったには違いないのだ。然しその民族が永年の間世界の大勢に暗く、浮華文弱に流れて、其の内部は極度に腐敗し早晩はロシアでなければ、米、英に呑まれてしまわなければならない運命にあったのだ。若しもそうなったとしたら、帝国の将校どころか、今頃は彼らの奴隷だ。奴隷どころか今まで生きて居れたか、どうかが疑問である。

そんなになって好いであろうか。何といっても日本と朝鮮とは同文同種である。而も世界無比の崇高なる国体を有し、三千年の古き歴史を形作って来た国である。而してその日本人が人間として与えられたる使命は、東亜の天地を舞台として、日本民族が天より授かった能力を最大限に発揮して、人類殊に東亜民族の文化の発達と福祉の増進にあるのだ。我々朝鮮人は斯くの如き崇高なる使命を有する日本帝国の臣民となり、大和民族と渾然一体となって日本人を中心として東亜を拓きこれを護り、これを育てて行くという新しき使命を課せられているのだ。今日の如き陰鬱なる空気を一掃ししく革新せられたる使命を完全に果たすためには一日も早く大和民族と同化し完全なる大和民族に成り切ることだ。それ以外に道がないのである。それが又我々朝鮮人の無限の幸福なのだ。

之がためには今日の朝鮮人が完全に皇道精神を体得し、完全なる日本精神の持主となり、皇民としての能力を発揮し得るだけの実力を持たねばならぬ。今自分は縁ありて帝国の将校となったのだ。帝国将校としての自分の使命は、単に将校としての責任を完全に果たすにあるのみではなく、朝鮮人全体の負担すべき責任を背負っているのだ。

◇―◇

今自分は異常なる試練場に登っているのだ。帝国将校としての自分の一挙一動は直に朝鮮全体の将来に反影して来るのだ。完全なる大和民族になり切ってやろう。而して立派な範を示し此処に大和民族の朝鮮人あり朝鮮人も大和民族になり得るんだという信念を与えてやろう。そうしたら今日の憂鬱なる空気は一掃せられ明朗なる空気が漂うであろうという自分の信念であった。

それから三十年というものは、血みどろの努力生活が続けられた大和民族としての人格の陶冶に努めた、与えられたる任務の完遂に努めた、朝鮮人殊に後輩の啓発に努めた。内地人が一時間勉強すれば、自分は五時間、十時間の勉強だ。与えられたる任務が自分の能力に比して過重と思った時には、名実共に浸食を忘れて之を完遂することに努力した。自分に取っては才幹というよりも時間効力の発揮であった。家庭を編成して二十数年、全く之を顧る余裕はなかったのが、予の生涯なのだ。

斯くの如きことを書き立てて見た所で、その真の苦心と努力とは、自ら体験し実行して来た自分自身以外、何人と雖も想像も及ばないことであろう。朝鮮人として大和民族になり切る苦心は容易なことではない。大正七年夏、少尉に任官後三年八ヶ月目に中尉に進級した。それから一ヶ月後に動員令が下ってシベリアに出陣することになった。自分にとっては全くの初陣である。帝国将校として朝鮮人としての面目を施す時は来たのだ。何と言っても軍人は実戦に臨まなければならぬ。弾丸の洗礼を受けて見て、初めて人間の真価が現れるのだ。今まで浮華文弱に流れ、腐り切った祖先を持って生れた朝鮮人が、いくら己は純粋なる大和魂の持主なり、日本人なりと言って見たところで、実績のない、証明の出来ないものに誰が信を置こう。

自分が朝鮮生れの大和人として、真に大和魂を把握している純粋日本人たることを立証し得るのは、千歳一遇のこの時機にあるのだ。然し私一個人としての事情はないではなかった。父が丁度陸士卒業半年前に亡くなって、家には母が一人と唯一人の未成年の弟がいるのみなのだ。而も任官以来唯一回休暇を賜わって帰って見ただけで家のことがどうなったか、その内容は一向に知らぬのだ。自分でなければ整理のつかないことも山ほどあった。家庭的に残っている問題は、可成りに多かったのだ。

◇―◇

時の連隊長に呼ばれて連隊長室に行った。

『君は今度出征することになったのだが、家庭のことでも何でも宜しいから、言い置きはないか？君が出征した後で、出来ることなら処理をしてやるから遠慮なしに言ってくれ給え』

ああ何という情深いことであろう。衷心感涙に咽ぶのであった。然し自分は静かに考えた。自分でなければ整理のつかないことがないでもない。然し自分は今大命に依って出征をするのだ。而も朝鮮人として日本人たることを立証すべき時なのだ。区々たる家事を云々すべき時ではないのだ。そう思った瞬間『何もありませぬ。喜んで靖国神社に参ります』ときっぱりと答えた。『あそうか。それでは確かり頼むぞ』ということであった。

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釜山に上陸し満州を通ってシベリアに向かった。朝鮮を通って行くということは、予に取っては誠に奇縁であった。事々物々感無量ならざるはなかった。鉄道輸送の関係で釜山に二泊することになった自分に課せられた任務はなかった。家にはたった一人の老母とたった一人の弟がいるのみだ。

任官の翌年（大正四年夏）賜暇帰省で十日ばかり会っただけでそれから三年間帰省しなかった。而もこれから先は靖国神社での対面になるのだ。せめて一日位早く先発さして貰って、此の世の最後のお別れをしたかった。確かり母の胸に抱きついて、思う存分乳でも飲んで見たかった。母親の顔を忘れないように確かり眺めて見たかった。此の考えで胸が張り裂けるようだ。此の情には内地人も朝鮮人も変わりはないのだ。否寧ろ内地人の方が一層強いのかも知れぬ。然し自分は考えた。今自分は朝鮮人を代表して初陣に就くのだ。

先発だなどいい出したら、矢張り朝鮮人は家庭に未練があるのだ。生命が惜しいのだ、というような譏りを受けるかも知らぬ。ここは大いに考えねばならぬというので一言も口に出さなかった。唯弟に手紙を出して、通過の時母親を連れて龍山駅に出て来るようにいって置いたのであった。一晩は釜山で明かした。翌日の昼頃、突然停車場から電話が掛かって来た。同じ中隊附将校の電話であった。その要旨は次の通りであった。

『大隊長に申中尉（当時余の姓は申である）の家は京城にある。確かお母様一人だけであった筈であるから、一日先行さして会わしてやったら何うですか』と申し上げたら、大隊長は『そうか、それは気がつかなかった。旅客列車が今直ぐ出る。自分に挨拶などに来たら発車時刻に間に合わないから、挨拶は抜きにして今直ぐ行け。明夜十二時に龍山で合わせよ』と仰せられたから、今直ぐ出発せよとのことであった。

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元々此方の希望して居ったところであるから、上司のお許しがあるとすれば、遠慮は要らない。直ぐに発って京城へ来た。母親とは十時間ばかり会うことが出来た。これで安心だ。何時靖国神社に往っても好いような気がした。

斯くの如く人情としては問題にもならないようなことでも、朝鮮人としては特別の決意を示さねばならぬほどの当時であったから、三十年前の朝鮮人が、日本人とするために如何に苦労したかは、想像に余りがあるであろう。シベリアに行った、征戦二年、自分としては別に大した勲功も樹て得なかったことは誠に恥ずかしいことであるが、然し卑怯な真似はしなかった。帝国の将校としての精神は傷つけなかった。朝鮮人の面目は潰さなかった積りである。二年目に帰って来た。軍部内の気分も明朗になって来た。然し是れで満足すべきではない。当時の朝鮮の一段の事情としては、未だまだ努力が必要である。妻を貰い、子供も続々出来て来た。然し余の人生観には更に一大変化を来したのだ。

それというのは、自分の初陣の目標は靖国神社にあったのであるが、幸か不幸か、靖国神社には行かずして、生きて帰って来た、然し是れからの自分は生きているのではない。とうにシベリアの屍となっているのだ。既に骸骨となって居るのだ。死人には感覚がない筈だ。ひねってもつねっても痛くはない。況んや苦しいとか、眠いとか、腹が減ったとか、いうような感覚があろう筈がない。死人となって働いてやろうという気持ちだったのだ。是れが即ち帝国のためであり、朝鮮のためなのだ。

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内鮮融和の語は流行ったが、未だ未だ先は遠いのだ。依然として影は暗い。不平不満もある。軍に於いても我々同期生十三名と次の期二十名を将校とした外、一向に後継者を作っては貰えなかった。任官後十年経って漸く兵役法の一部の改正があって、朝鮮人に対する志願兵制度が成立せられ、陸軍幼年学校、士官学校、其の他の諸学校に朝鮮出身の有能の士にして、陸軍に志し採用試験に合格したものを入校せしむるようになった。

思えば帝国の陸軍に学んで六年、職を軍に奉ずること十年、血を以てする活躍の効顕れて、漸く我が半島に光が萌して来たのだ。何たる感激であろう。朝鮮人が真正なる大和民族となり、鉄石の如き信念に生き抜くための捷路は、身を軍籍に置く以外にないと確信して居ったからだ。

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確か昭和四年か五年頃であった。満州事変前のことである。或る日連隊長に呼ばれて、その室に行った。一葉の文書を提示された。見ると、『朝鮮人のみを主体とする中学程度以上の学校の生徒に現役将校を配属し学校教練を実施するの可否』ということが書いてあった。これに関する意見の提出を上司より求められて来たのだ。遠慮は要らないから、腹蔵なき意見を筆記を以て提出せよとのことであった。

当時に於ける一般の気風は、内鮮融和の声が高く、且つ朝鮮人有識階級の凡てが朝鮮に義務教育の実施を熟望したり、徴兵制度の実施を一日も早からむことを懇願したりして、或は個人的に或は代表者を定めて、縷々要路の当局に嘆願書を提出したり或は直接中央部に出掛けて交渉をしたりしたのであった。

是れ偏に朝鮮人有識階級自らが、当時の朝鮮全体を、一日も早く皇民化せしめ、陰鬱なる気分を一掃して真に内鮮一体を実現せしめんとするの熱意に外ならなかった。然し当時の朝鮮としては、未だ未だ民度が低い、思想的に考慮を要する点も多々あったので、従って当局としては嘆願する度毎に時期尚早という理由の下に受け入れられなかった。

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斯くの如き情勢に於いて朝鮮人学徒に軍事訓練を実施するの可否の問題が持ち上がったのである。自分は答えた。

「今日の情勢に於いて真に内鮮一丸の実を挙ぐるには朝鮮人をして一日も早く皇国臣民たらしむるにある。之がためには、朝鮮人をして一日も早く日本精神を体得し把握せしめねばならぬ。それがためには一日も早く徴兵制度を実施して軍人精神を体得せしむるにある。然し朝鮮に徴兵制度を実施するのには時期尚早であるから、少くも中学程度以上の学校に現役将校を配属して速やかに軍事訓練を施し、先ず朝鮮に於ける指導者階級をして、日本精神を把握せしめることが肝要である。何も彼も時期尚早で躊躇していたら、何時になったら内鮮一丸となることが出来るであろうか。現に私の如き朝鮮人が多少でもあるでないか。自分としても決して生まれながらに日本精神の持主ではない。元を導かぬれば正真正銘の朝鮮人である。その純粋なる朝鮮人が今日の如き日本人となったのは全く軍隊教育のお蔭である。それから考えても、今日の朝鮮人をして一日も早く皇国臣民たらしむる唯一の道は少くも学校に軍事訓練を実施するにある。どうか躊躇することなく快刀乱麻を断つ式に学校教練を実施して戴きたい」

ということであった以上は素より当局が既に方針を確立してのことであって、自分の貧弱なる意見が効果があったかなかったかは別問題として兎も角も翌年から試験的に京畿高等普通学校と平壌高等普通学校に軍事教練を実施することになり、実施後一年経つと教育の効果があるというので逐次全鮮に及ぼすことになり、今日のような状態を呈しているのである。

Source: https://archive.org/details/kjnp-1943-11-17/page/n4/mode/1up