Koreans needed Imperial police-issued ‘travel purpose certificates’ to travel on buses and trains by April 1944, police cracked down on female passengers for illegal food vending and ‘unnecessary and non-urgent travel’

In the midst of World War II, life in Korea under Imperial Japanese rule was marked by increasing restrictions and control, particularly on the everyday activities of ordinary citizens. A series of articles from Keijo Nippo, the largest newspaper in colonial Korea, published in April 1944, highlights the regime's oppressive measures to manage the country's strained railway system. These announcements shed light on the strict wartime regulations that sought to curtail overcrowding on public transportation by imposing severe limitations on who could travel, when, and for what purpose.

Brown commuter train pass (left) and green worker bus pass (right).

One such announcement focused on female passengers, targeting women who were deemed to be traveling for "unnecessary and non-urgent" reasons. The authorities cracked down on illegal food vending on trains, with vendors – likely selling tteokbokki or similar items – risking arrest for their activities. In an era of extreme scarcity, these women were probably just trying to make ends meet, much like Sunja's struggles in Pachinko with her kimchi business. However, the colonial regime's economic police maintained an army of informants, leaving these vendors constantly under threat of punishment, illustrating how survival efforts were criminalized.

Another critical regulation required passengers to possess ‘travel certificates,’ documents that had previously been easier to obtain from local neighborhood or town councils. Starting in April 1944, these certificates could only be issued by the police, who were already overwhelmed by other wartime duties. These travel certificates also had the added requirement to state an explicit 'reason for travel'. This added layer of bureaucracy made it even more challenging for ordinary people to travel freely, emphasizing the regime’s growing control over personal movement.

Further restrictions included new rules that made it illegal for passengers to disembark from trains before reaching their designated destination, even for short distances, and the introduction of special transit passes that were limited to specific groups, such as commuters, workers, and students. Despite these rigorous measures, an article from August 1945 revealed that overcrowding on trains persisted, likely exacerbated by the ongoing shortages of train cars, parts, and labor during the war. These regulations not only controlled movement but also reflected the broader wartime hardships and the oppressive reach of the colonial government over daily life in Korea.

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) April 3, 1944

**Wartime Notice**

Extraordinary wartime measures on the railway system have been further strengthened, yet the number of inconsiderate passengers does not seem to have noticeably decreased.

Until two or three days ago, there were people who had purchased tickets but were unable to board, resulting in daily ticket refunds averaging around 1,500 yen at the transportation bureaus in front of the stations.

Needless to say, most of these were short-distance travelers, or individuals whose travels were completely unrelated to the war effort. From various perspectives, one would want to say that this is wasteful.

Thus, as an additional emergency measure, it is worth considering the restriction of short-distance travel for women, excluding families of those being transferred or reassigned. It is not unreasonable to assume that most of these women are unnecessary and non-urgent travelers.

Among them, there are even women who bring homemade rice cakes into the train cars, targeting the passengers’ hunger, and selling them at black-market prices. Naturally, they are being dealt with by the transportation police and by the economic police.

Furthermore, there are concerns that so-called travel certificates issued by town representatives, ward leaders, or patriotic group leaders may be influenced by favoritism. Although it is true that these individuals have become busier recently, the travel certificates should be strictly limited to those issued by the police.

In that sense, what about appointing privately funded police officers in some capacity as railway police officers? It is not an ideal approach, but for people who will not comply unless confronted by the power of the police, there may be no other option.

Source: https://www.archive.org/details/kjnp-1944-04-03

 

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) April 18, 1944

**Guidelines for Train Travel**

**Cooperation in Transportation Efforts**

**Fighting Households**

Since the implementation of the railway passenger transportation restrictions on April 1, non-essential and non-urgent travelers have decreased. However, the situation is not yet fully under control. Nevertheless, we trust in the pride of the Japanese people and their cooperation towards the completion of the sacred war. Some people are still not fully familiar with the new regulations that came into effect after April 1, causing congestion. Therefore, we would like to present some guidelines to ensure smooth and clear transportation service.

First, regarding the Travel Purpose Certificate, we would like to suggest the following format for use at Seoul Station. However, please note that even if you have a certificate, it does not guarantee that you will be able to purchase a ticket as desired due to various circumstances. Please be aware of this in advance.

**Travel Purpose Certificate Format**:

• Address
• Occupation and Social Status
• Name and Age: Male/Female (As of the Current Year)
• Reason for Travel
• Travel Date: From (Month, Day) to (Month, Day)
• Travel Zone: From (Station) to (Station), One-way/Round-trip
• Date: (Showa Year, Month, Day)
• Certifier/Official Seal

Certified as above

The primary difference in this new format from previous versions is the clear specification of the travel zone.

Further, express and direct trains require reservations. If you miss your designated train due to personal reasons, the ticket will become invalid, so please be mindful of this. From now on, reserved trains will be managed by train numbers, so please remember your train number. Generally, ascending trains (towards Seoul) will have even numbers, and descending trains (away from Seoul) will have odd numbers. Please also note that general passengers are not allowed on commuter trains, so please be aware of this.

Regarding restrictions on disembarking en route, or getting off the train before reaching your designated destination, in general, it is prohibited to disembark en route at stations less than 40 kilometers from your departure station. However, passengers departing from Seoul station are prohibited from disembarking at stations within approximately 100 kilometers of Seoul station. Therefore, for trips departing from Seoul station, on the Seoul-Jinju Line, disembarking en route is prohibited between Seoul and Cheonan stations. On the Gyeongui Line, disembarking en route is prohibited between Seoul and Kaesong stations. On the Gyeongwon Line, disembarking en route is prohibited between Seoul and Cheorwon stations. On the Gyeonggyeong Line, disembarking en route is prohibited between Seoul and Yangpyeong stations.

Regarding luggage, each person is allowed one piece of up to 50 kilograms. For items up to 30 kilograms, there is no additional charge, but if it exceeds this, the entire weight will be charged. Hand-carried items are limited to two pieces of medium-sized trunks. If you observe these guidelines, we believe we can achieve smooth and convenient transportation service.

**[Statement by Mr. Yamada, Chief Passenger Officer, Seoul Station]**

Source: https://www.archive.org/details/kjnp-1944-04-18

 

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) April 19, 1944

**Seoul Electric Railway’s Commuter Passes Are On Sale**

*Train Passes are Brown**

**Bus Passes are Green**

In response to the fare revisions enacted on the 1st of the month, Seoul Electric Railway will soon begin selling commuter, worker, and student passes to regulate transportation usage. There are four types of passes: commuter pass, worker pass, student pass Type A, and student pass Type B. The commuter pass, including tax, is priced at 3 yen and 70 sen. The worker pass, tax exempt, costs 2 yen and 50 sen. The student passes are divided into two categories: Type A, for secondary school students and below, is tax exempt and priced at 2 yen; Type B, for technical school students and above, is also tax exempt and costs 2 yen and 50 sen.

The train passes will have a brown background with prominent month digits printed, clearly displaying the travel route to prevent unauthorized use. The bus passes will be green and will also specify the boarding and disembarking zones. These passes are available for bulk purchases through affiliated offices, companies, or organizations and will not be sold to individuals.

As for usage guidelines, the following will render a pass invalid and subject to confiscation: purchasing passes under false pretenses regarding travel zones, using passes under another person's name, using passes outside the designated travel route, or altering any printed details on the pass. *[Photo: Samples of the Commuter Passes]*

Source: https://www.archive.org/details/kjnp-1944-04-19

 

[Transcription]

京城日報 1944年4月3日

血戦録

鉄道の決戦非常措置はますます強化されたが、心なき旅客の数は、格別減ったとも見られない。

両三日前迄は、切符は買ったが乗れなかったという人たちによって、駅前の交通公社では、一日に平均千五百円内外の払い戻しを行ったという。

いうまでもなく、それ等は主として近距離客であって、いわゆる決戦旅行に縁の遠い人たちばかりである。いろいろの点から見て、無駄なことだといいたくなる。

そこで、この上の非常措置として、転任、転勤者の家族は別として、婦人の近距離旅行を抑制することも考えられる。彼女等は大部分不急不要の客とみて差支えない。

中には、手製の餅などを車内に持ち込んで、乗客の空腹を狙って、それを闇値で売っている女すらある。当然、移動警察、経済警察の人たちの手で処置されてはいる。

いわゆる旅行証明書なるものも、町総代や区長、班長のものでは、情実を伴う心配がある。近頃ますます忙しくなって来たことは認めるが、これは飽くまで警察発行のものに限ったがよい。

その意味で、請願巡査が何かの形式で、鉄道警察官といったようなものを置く方法は如何であろうか。好むことではないが、警察の力でなければ納得せぬ人間にはこれより方法がないかもしれぬ。

京城日報 1944年4月18日

汽車旅行の心得

輸送陣の協力へ

戦う家庭

四月一日より実施している鉄道旅客輸送制限によって不急不要の旅行者は減少されましたが、今はなお完全とは申されません。然し私は日本人の矜持で皆さんの聖戦完遂への協力を信じています。四月一日以後の措置について今なお熟知していない方がいて混雑をきたしますから、乗車上の注意を申し上げ、円滑明朗な輸送奉公をしたいと思います。

まず旅行目的証明書のことですが、京城駅では次の様式をすすめしたいと思います。けれども種々の事情で証明書をお持ちになっても必ずしも希望通りの乗車券を購入し得るとは限りませんから、そのことだけは予めおふくみ願いたいと思います。

旅行証明書：

• 住所
• 職業身分
• 氏名年齢：男女（当 年）
• 旅行理由
• 乗車月日：自〇月〇日至〇月〇日
• 乗車区間：自〇駅至〇駅片道・往復
• 昭和〇年〇月〇日
• 〇〇〇〇証明者・認 印

右証明す

右の様式で従来と違う所は旅行区間を明記することです。

次は急行及び直通列車は指定を要します。もし指定列車に自己の都合で乗らなかった場合はその切符は無効になりますから御注意下さい。これからは指定列車は番号でやりますから列車番号を御記憶下さい。大体上り列車は偶数で下りは奇数番号です。なお通勤列車には一般乗車は出来ませんから、その点御諒承下さい。

次に途中下車の制限に就いてですが、原則としては各発駅から四十粁未満は禁止です。京城からは約百粁程度以内は各駅相互間の発着旅客は途中下車は出来ません。ですから京普線では京城より天安間、京義線では開城間、京元線では鐵原間、京慶線では楊平間です。

次に手荷物は一人一個五十粁までです。三十粁までは無賃ですが、それを越した場合は全部を有賃にします。手廻品は中型トランク程度の物二箇に限ります。以上御注意下されば事務簡便明朗な輸送奉公が出来ると思います。【京城駅山田旅客主任談】

京城日報 1944年4月19日

京電の定期券発売

電車は茶色

バスは緑色

足の規正を行って一日から乗車賃改正をみた京電では近く通勤者、工員、学生定期券を発売する。種類は通勤、工員、学生通学甲乙券の四種類で通勤券は税込三円七十銭、工員券税なし二円五十銭、通学券は甲中等以下税なしの二円、乙専門学校以上税なしの二円五十銭で、電車定期券は茶の地色に大きく月の数字を浮かせ乗車系統が明記され不正乗車を防止する。

バス定期券は緑色でこれ又乗降区間を記載する。購入は所属官庁、会社、団体等の一括購入で個人的には発売しない。

なお使用上の注意としては乗車区間を偽り購入した時、他人の名義の定期券を使用した時、乗車径路外の使用を行った時、券面記載事項を塗抹改変した時等は定期券は一切無効として没収される。【写真＝定期券の見本】

Korean rice farmers barely survived eating grass roots as they worked tirelessly to meet the rice quotas imposed by the Imperial Army in 1944, even sacrificing their own personal rice supplies to face starvation under pressure from the police inspector and the township chief

This disturbing propaganda news story from 1944 is about a rice farming township (Seonso-myeon) in Suncheon County, South Pyeongan Province in what is now North Korea, which was supposedly so grateful to their police inspector for being compassionate and not scolding or beating them, that they were inspired to not only offer up all the rice they had kept to feed themselves for the year, but also sacrifice their own lives for the police inspector. The rice farmers had just worked through incredible hardship, even eating roots to barely survive, but they still came short of the rice quota that the Imperial Army had imposed on them, which is why they had to give up their own personal supplies of rice so that they could meet the quota, even if it meant that they could starve to death in the process. 

Patriotic Korean military grandma Tanzan Kōzō

This article provides a glimpse into the cruel colonial power structure that led to the oppressive exploitation and even possible starvation and genocide of Korean farmers under Imperial Japanese rule. Apparently, the county police chiefs were responsible for delivering the rice quotas that were imposed by the Imperial Army. The county police chief would direct the police inspector to pressure the local township leader, or myeon chief, to make sure that the rice farmers worked hard enough to meet the Imperial Army's rice quotas. The myeon chief was typically a Korean collaborator from the township who was installed into this position by the colonial government. Similar food procuring operations were conducted by the Imperial Japanese military all across occupied areas during World War II to deadly effect. For example, Vietnam experienced a famine in 1944-1945.

The Korean Federation of National Power (国民総力朝鮮連盟, 국민총력조선연맹), which sent the news dispatch team which wrote this news story, was the single ruling party of Japan-colonized Korea. The propaganda purpose of their article was probably to inspire readers with the hard work ethic displayed by the Korean rice farmers, and to encourage other Korean farmers to work just as hard as the rice farmers of Seonso-myeon to provide food supplies to the Imperial Army, even if it meant putting themselves at the brink of starvation. The article was also a way of rewarding the police chief and police inspector for squeezing the demanded rice quota out of the rice farmers. They added some personal anecdotes about missing a mother's funeral and dealing with a sick baby to humanize the police chief.  

See also the similar 1943 story of rice farmer Kim Chi-gu and his sons, who vowed to donate about 150,000 kg of rice to the Imperial Army over ten years.

Another propaganda story features a Korean 'military grandma' whose son died serving in the Imperial Army. She allegedly transcribed the Japanese national anthem, 'Kimigayo', and the Imperial Subjects' Oath into Korean and recited them day and night in an effort to be a better Imperial subject. 

The Imperial Subjects' Oath (皇国臣民ノ誓詞), which the 'military grandma' transcribed into Hangul and recited day and night, was promulgated throughout Korea on October 2, 1937. It was actually drafted by a Korean collaborator named Lee Gag-jong (李覺鐘), and then finalized by then Governor of occupied Korea, Minami Jirō. The oath is as follows. 

• 私共は、大日本帝国の臣民であります。
• 私共は、心を合わせて天皇陛下に忠義を尽します。
• 私共は、忍苦鍛錬して立派な強い国民となります。
• 我等は皇国臣民なり、忠誠以て君国に報ぜん。
• 我等皇国臣民は互に信愛協力し、以て団結を固くせん。
• 我等皇国臣民は忍苦鍛錬力を養い以て皇道を宣揚せん。
• We are subjects of the Great Empire of Japan.
• We are united in our hearts in our loyalty to His Majesty the Emperor.
• We will persevere and train ourselves to become a fine and strong people.
• We are subjects of the Imperial State, and we will repay the sovereign nation with loyalty.
• We, the subjects of the Imperial State, shall love and cooperate with each other, and thus solidify our unity.
• We, the subjects of the Imperial State, shall cultivate the power of endurance and discipline, and thereby proclaim the Imperial Way.

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) March 16, 1944

Righteousness and Tears Behind the Rice Contribution

A Military Grandma, a Devoted Imperial Subject, Offers Up Her Beloved Child

A Beautiful Story Found in a Farming Village

By Special Correspondent Kiyohara

As a member of the special news dispatch team sent by the Korean Federation of National Power, I participated in the "Total National Mobilization Rally to Destroy the U.S. and Britain" from February 22, starting in Gando Township (myeon) (간동면, 看東面), Junghwa County, South Pyeongan Province, and continued for about two weeks in one town (eup) and six townships. During this time, I sought to understand the genuine spirit of how the farming villages were living and fighting. In my spare moments, I visited the farmers, rich with the fragrance of the earth, and heard stories of righteousness and tears from a police chief, and moving stories such as that of a military mother who offered her beloved child to the Imperial Nation. Here, I will recount my report.

One day in Seonso Township (선소면, 仙沼面), Suncheon County, South Pyeongan Province: Through the deep snow, or along the cold windswept mountain roads and fields, they continued to carry the heavy rice sacks loaded on carts, chanting “Essah, Essah!” From spring to summer, and from summer to fall, they overcame the shortage of fertilizer and battled against nature. The sweat they shed was crystallized into rice, nurtured by the land that they were entrusted with by the Emperor. It was this rice that became food for the soldiers and sustenance for the warriors of increased production. This is why they joyfully and proudly contributed it.

On the day of contribution, not even half the scheduled amount of rice had been delivered. Surprised, the township chief went to consult with Inspector Izumi at the local police station. The inspector, with a strong sense of responsibility, said, "The brave soldiers of the Imperial Army on the front lines are enduring battles for three or four days on just pickled plums. It is truly regrettable that the assigned quantity of rice cannot be delivered. This is shameful to our nation."

However, he added, "But we cannot force the farmers to provide more rice. The farmers are working with all their might, demonstrating their utmost sincerity. I have heard that during last spring's period of hardship, some people even ate roots to survive. They too must be suffering greatly."

The township chief, determined to request the farmers' cooperation once again, went to the meeting hall where they had gathered. Stirred by a fiery and burning fighting spirit surging through his entire body, he reported Inspector Izumi's heartfelt concern for the people of the township. He pleaded, "I am not asking you to force yourselves to contribute. But is this truly enough? Can we disregard the inspector’s tears?"

Moved by these words, a bearded farmer, with both cheeks flushed with emotion, cried out, "Everyone, until now, we have only thought of policemen as those who scold and beat us. Never in our wildest dreams did we think there was someone who would think so deeply and seriously about the plight of the farmers. For this inspector, we should not only offer rice, but also be willing to give our very lives!"

All of the township residents in attendance agreed, entrusting the responsibility of the contribution to the righteous and compassionate inspector and township chief. Fueled by a spirit of die-hard loyalty to the nation, they loaded their carts with the rice they had kept to feed themselves for the year. Fathers pulled, sons pushed, and some came from four ri (about 16 km) away, while others braved the frigid wind on slopes with a 45-degree incline. They heard the cries of pheasants in the distance as they continued to carry the rice late into the night, each one shouting, "Me too! Me too!"

By the time the night was over, rice sacks had been piled high in front of the township office. Nearly the entire scheduled amount had been delivered in a single day, and they had proudly fulfilled their responsibility to contribute.

Behind the leadership of the admirable Inspector Izumi stands another figure of selfless devotion: Police Chief Tatsuichi Hiramatsu of the Suncheon Police Station.

Last winter, a telegram arrived at Chief Hiramatsu's desk with the message, "Mother critically ill, return at once." The chief, known for his particularly strong filial piety, was ready to rush to his ailing mother's side. However, he thought to himself, "We are in a decisive battle. Public duties cannot be neglected, not for a single day, not even for an hour. The greater duty overrides one's personal obligations." With this thought, he bit his lip and threw his body and soul into his official duties, standing firm in the face of the enemy. A week later, another telegram arrived, bearing the message, "Mother has passed away."

The chief sat in silent meditation for a while, then clasped his hands together in prayer toward his hometown. After wiring money to cover his mother’s funeral expenses, he returned to his work with the same dedication as before, moving his fellow officers deeply.

When the reporter visited as part of the special news dispatch team, Chief Hiramatsu's beloved infant was suffering from a high fever of 40 degrees Celsius (104 degrees Fahrenheit). Yet, he refused to neglect the crucial duties of the "Total National Mobilization Rally" for personal matters. Entrusting the care of his child to his loving wife, he left his home. Despite suffering from frostbite, which made walking difficult, he accompanied the reporter on foot for a round trip of five ri (about 20 km) along the mountainous path within the town (eup) to Bukchang Township (북창면, 北倉面), fulfilling his duties. This fervent devotion to his work, even at the cost of personal sacrifice, has become a silent yet powerful lesson for all the station's officers.

◇

In Gando Township, Junghwa County, South Pyeongan Province, there is a remarkable woman who offered up her beloved son as a shield for the nation, and she studies the national anthem "Kimigayo" and the Imperial Subjects' Oath by writing them in the Korean alphabet (Hangul).

Tanzan Kōzō (aged 57), from 87-Jiseok-ri (지석리, 支石里), Gando Township, Junghwa County, South Pyeongan Province, is the mother of four sons. One of them, Shōgorō (aged 26), bravely set off last September as an army civilian employee headed for the South Pacific. Two months later, he returned home in silence, having made the ultimate sacrifice. However, despite her son's tragic return, she never showed the slightest hint of sorrow or a dark expression to those who visited her. Instead, she would say, "He perished soon after setting off, without the chance to plant the Hinomaru Japanese flag in enemy territory. I worry that he may have died from illness on the ship. That is my only concern, and I feel terribly sorry toward His Majesty for that."

Believing that the first and foremost duty of the 25 million Korean compatriots, as Imperial subjects, is to cultivate their spirits, she has transcribed "Kimigayo" and the Imperial Subjects' Oath into Hangul and recites them day and night. Although she only knows Hangul and is unfamiliar with the Japanese language or its characters, her passionate patriotism has moved many. Her example inspired a surge in volunteer applications for military service, overwhelming those from other townships.

Photo: Mrs. Tanzan Kōzō

[Transcription]

京城日報 1944年3月16日

供出の蔭に義と涙

愛児捧げ、皇民一筋の軍国ばあさん

農村に拾う美わしき挿話

【清原本社特派員記】国民総力朝鮮聯盟派遣の報道特別挺身隊員として二月二十二日から平南中和郡看東面を皮切りに約二週間に亘り一邑六面の米英撃滅国民総蹶起大会に参加した。そして農村は如何に生き如何に戦っているが、そのいつわらぬ姿を求めようとひまを見つけては土の香り高い農民を温突に訪れ、義と涙の巡査部長や愛児を皇国に捧げた軍国の母の佳話などを耳にした。その報告記をここに綴ろう。

雪深い或は寒風の唸る山道や野原をどっしりと重い米俵を荷車に満載してエッサエッサと運びつづける春から夏、夏から秋にかけ肥料不足を克服し、自然と闘って得た汗の結晶も大君からお預かりしている大地が育みそだてたお米と思えばこそ、兵糧になり、増産戦士の糧になると思えばこそ喜びと誇りをもっての供出なのだ。平南順川郡仙沼面でのある一日である。

供出日というのに運ばれた米は予定数量の半分にもならない。驚いた面長はどうしたものかと駐在所の泉巡査部長を尋ねた。巡査部長は、「第一線の皇軍勇士は梅干しで三日も四日も戦をしのいでいるというのに、割り当てられた数量の供出が出来ないとは全くなげかわしい。これでは、お国に申し訳ない」と強い責任観念の一端をひらめかし、「だが農民にもっともっと米を出せと強いるわけにはゆかない。百姓も力一杯働き力一杯赤誠を示しているのだ。去年の春窮期には草の根を食糧にした者もあったそうだ。彼等もさぞ苦しいだろう」

面長は今一度農民に協力を要望して見ようと農民の集っている集会場に足を運び、鉄火と燃える闘魂を五体に沸らして泉部長の面民を思う真情を報告し、「無理に供出せよとはいわぬ。しかしこれでよいか。部長の涙をそのまま無にしてもよかろうか」と訴えると髭面の一百姓が感激に両頬を紅潮させて、「皆の衆、我々は今まで警察官とは叱りつけ、なぐりつける人とばかり思っていたが、百姓のことをそんなに真剣に深く考えてくれる方がおるとは夢にも思わなかった。この部長なら米は愚か命までも捧げようではないか」と叫び全面民はこれに賛成し供出後のことは義と涙の部長、面長に一任し、一年間の糧となる自家保有米を殉国の一念に燃えて車に満載し、父は引き息子は押して或者は四里も遠くから、或者は四十五度位の傾斜の峠を寒風に乗って聞こえる雉の泣き声を耳にしながら深夜まで”我も我も”と持ち運び面事務所の前には米俵が山と積まれ一日で予定数量に殆ど近い数字を示し供出の責任を立派に果たした。

このよき指導者泉部長の蔭にはこれまた滅私奉公の署長がおる。順川警察暑平松辰一署長である。この署長の机に『ハハキトク、スグカヘレ』の電報がどとけられたのは昨冬のことである。人一倍孝行心の強い所長は今にも病母の膝元へ駈けつけたが”決戦下だ。公務は一日も否一時間も休めない。大義親を滅すというではないか”と唇を噛んで敵前執務に身も魂も打ち込んだが、それから一週間後には『ハハシス』との電報が入った。しばらく瞑想していた署長は故郷に向かって合掌ののち母の葬儀費を電送したのち、またも従前通り働き署員を感激せしめた。

記者が報道挺身隊として訪れたときも、可愛い赤ん坊が四十度の高熱でうなっていたが国民総蹶起大会という大事な仕事を私事で怠ってはと後事を愛妻に託して家を後にし而も足が凍傷で歩きにくいのにも拘わらず、邑内から北倉面まで片道二里半の山道を記者とともに徒歩で往復し任務を果たした。この職務に殉せんとの熱意が全署員に無言の教訓を垂れているのである。

◇

平南中和郡看東面には愛息の醜の御楯と捧げ自分は国歌『君が代』や皇国臣民の誓詞を朝鮮諺文で書いて勉強する奇篤なおばさんがおる。平南中和郡看東面支石里八七丹山光三さん（五七）は四男まで設けたが、その中、祥五郎君（二六）が陸軍軍属として昨夏九月に南海に向けて勇躍出発。それから二ヶ月後に無言の凱旋をしたが、訪れる者に対しては暗い顔色は微塵も見せず返って『あれが征ってから間もなく散華したので、日の丸を敵陣に立てることも出来ず、途中船で病死したのではないかと只それが心配だし、且つ大君に申し訳ないと思っています』と答えそれから二千五万同胞が皇国臣民として重責を完うするにはまず魂の錬成が肝要だと『君が代』や皇国臣民の誓詞を諺文で表音して日夜唱えている。国語は勿論文字とても諺文しか知らないおばさんの愛国の熱情に感動し志願兵の応募数も他面を断然圧倒したという。

【写真＝丹山光三さん】

Source: https://archive.org/details/kjnp-1944-03-16/page/n1/mode/1up

Imperial Japan’s railway system in Korea was falling apart by early August 1945 with severe overcrowding, parts and labor shortages, exhausted staff causing more accidents, train conductors gone rogue …

This article offers a fascinating glimpse into the decrepit state of the streetcar system in Seoul at the beginning of August 1945, a mere two weeks or so before the end of World War II and the liberation of Korea from Imperial Japanese colonial rule.

Original caption: Executive Maehara guiding workers on-site

Three years of war apparently took a terrible toll on the city's streetcar infrastructure, with shortages of everything from labor to materials, and repair backlogs increasing. Even in the best of times, the streetcar system was already struggling with crowding, as shown in these newspaper photos from November 28, 1939:

Fewer operational streetcars meant even more overcrowding, which was exacerbated by passengers who brought oversized luggage on board, often stuffed with scarce food supplies brought in from the countryside. Fewer staff also meant overworked staff who were exhausted and more prone to mistakes, which led to more accidents. Similar scenes were likely playing out elsewhere in Imperial Japan in both the wartime and immediate postwar periods.

The colonial reporter interviewed two people for this piece: one was President Hozumi of Seoul Electric Railway, and the other was Chief Conductor Maehara whom the reporter accompanied on a field trip to at least three of the train stations along a short stretch of what is now Line 2 of Seoul Metro: Kōgane Station (present-day Euljiro-1-ga), Eiraku Station (present-day Euljiro-3-ga), and Kōgane 4-Chōme Station (present-day Euljiro-4-ga). Maehara and the reporter witnessed the serious overcrowding and dysfunctional train operations first hand, such as train clumping and 'tandem trains' (a larger car pulling a smaller one). The interviewees were surprisingly frank and open about the ongoing problems, acknowledging room for improvement. As a propaganda news feature, colonial authorities may have published these interviews to address mounting public anger over worsening train services.

Maehara directed special criticism at rogue train conductors who were responsible for the phenomenon of trains pretending to be broken ('moving broken cars'), trains speeding away even though there is still space for more passengers ('jump trains'), trains that ignore waiting passengers at stops ('slipping trains'), and trains running without clear destinations ('black trains'), which he attributed to lack of adequate crew education. Perhaps some of these 'black trains' were commandeered by anti-regime elements, like Korean nationalists and revolutionaries.

This article uses one Korean word, "回車 (회차)", which means "a train reversing direction at the end of its route and heading back in the opposite direction". The corresponding Japanese word would be 折り返し列車. In fact, the word 回車 does not appear in any online Japanese dictionary, not even in the Weblio dictionary which usually includes words used during this period. Did the variety of Japanese spoken in Korea at the time include this word as a special loanword, or did a Korean writer accidentally or intentionally slip it into this article? In the two years of reading Keijo Nippo, this is arguably the first word I have ever encountered in the pages of the newspaper where I had to consult a Korean dictionary to confirm its definition.

I marked and labeled the train stations mentioned in this article along with some additional landmarks in the following illustrated 1929 map, which can be found at this history website. This map is a panoramic view of Seoul (then called Keijō in Japanese) as viewed in the northeast direction.

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) August 3, 1945

Trains, Run Smoothly! 

President Hozumi Discusses Alleviating Congestion 

Struggling with Repairs

Just when you think a train has finally arrived, you are caught in a crush of people, a scene of chaos and agony—it is truly a transportation hell. The issue of transportation is a source of distress for the people of Seoul. Is there any measure that can alleviate the congestion? This question, along with another concern, was brought to the headquarters of the Seoul Electric Railway Company, leading to a conversation with President Hozumi about running the trains.

The Wish to Eliminate Faulty Cars

Q: What is the fundamental cause of the transportation congestion?
A: In the past, we prided ourselves on operating 95% of all vehicles. Now, however, we cannot keep up with repairs. We lack enough cars, and we cannot procure motors. We are forcing trains to run in tandem (a larger car pulling a smaller one), but this strain is causing even more breakdowns. The rate of absenteeism among crew members is also increasing.

Q: While the material shortages are understandable, could not congestion be alleviated somewhat by having technical school students help out with repairs and by reinforcing labor management?
A: Well, is that something only the electric company can do? Recently, due to the rain, the number of faulty cars has increased. Of course, repairs are essential, and we must also consider the job security of the crew members. Support from relevant government agencies for food supplies and materials is necessary, and raising public awareness of transportation etiquette is also part of the solution.

Q: What about reducing unnecessary passengers?
A: Recently, there has been a noticeable increase in people going out to buy food. They bring large loads, which contributes to the congestion. But then, what qualifies as a truly necessary passenger? People going out to buy food are doing so to survive, so you cannot exactly say their trips are unnecessary. We need to be more thoughtful about car assignments.

Q: It seems accidents have been on the rise as well.
A: In general, people are paying less attention. This applies to the crew as well. I am deeply concerned about this. But when I look at the current situation, it seems like a competition between inconsiderate people. Seoul Electric runs the trains, but there are other institutions responsible for public transportation training and etiquette. I think it is necessary to retrain the drivers.

Q: Does Seoul Electric have any decisive measures to alleviate congestion?
A: Listen, when there is little food, people fight. The same applies to transportation—if we had enough cars, there would be no problem. For that, we need to gather more hands for repairs. If we can do that, restoring the system to its former state is not impossible.

Dull Train Operations

Chief Conductor Maehara brainstorms solutions

In terms of life in the city center, both moral integrity and clarity are swayed when the charm of smooth train operations is significantly disturbed. We accompanied a senior official from the Seoul Electric Railway Company as he took command on the front lines, observing the real situation on the ground.

"Don't push, you will get crushed! What are you saying? Don't dawdle!"

At the peak of rush hour, around 5 PM, near the entrance of Kōgane Station (present-day Euljiro-1-ga), a middle-aged, distinguished conductor was hard at work directing passengers, urging, "Please move in an orderly manner, there is still room, so please move inside." This dedicated conductor is none other than Mr. Maehara, a senior executive of Seoul Electric. At the request of the reporter, he kindly agreed to discuss the congestion issue on the spot.

"How can we squeeze in like this? People are not cargo!" a loud voice of anger came from the crowd, and Maehara, with a wry smile, slightly lowered his head.

Reporter: "Do you often ride the trains yourself?"
Maehara: "Of course, I am on the trains practically every third day."

After some light banter, the reporter and Maehara continued their conversation on the crowded train.

Reporter: "Is there no way to alleviate this congestion? Recently, I heard about a passenger who broke two ribs and had to be hospitalized."
Maehara: "It is embarrassing for the company that we are unable to adequately serve the needs of wartime transportation. Above all, we simply do not have enough trains. Compared to the end of last year, we have reduced the number of cars by an additional 30%. On top of that, 25% of the cars that leave the depot each day return due to breakdowns."

Reporter: "Is there no way to strengthen your repair capabilities?"
Maehara: "We lack enough workers."

Reporter: "You cannot just leave it at that, can you?"
Maehara: "Of course, the trains are just as important as weapons, and we are striving to train and recruit workers. We are waiting for the implementation of new regulations that will stabilize the conditions for our employees, but I regret that the authorities are slow in taking action."

Reporter: "Given the extreme reduction in the number of trains, isn't it vital for the company to implement bold new ideas for introducing new train management technologies?"
Maehara: "We are considering it, but it is difficult."

At Eiraku Station (present-day Euljiro-3-ga), many passengers got off, and a good number of waiting passengers were able to board. Maehara was closely examining intersection technologies.

Reporter: "For example, cars converge on this line from both the Namdaemun and Seodaemun platforms, so if people walk to this point, it should be easier to board. If the two platforms at the Kōgane Station entrance were consolidated on the Kōgane line side, the train utilization rate would increase significantly, don’t you think?"
Maehara: "We would not know for sure without precise calculations. It is a complex problem involving advanced mathematical 'combinations.' Moreover, the stop-and-go signals are controlled by entirely separate entities, which complicates matters."

Reporter: "Have you tried calculating it precisely?"
Maehara: "We have not. But breaking the usual norms of train operations may indeed be essential."

We disembarked at Kōgane 4-Chōme Station (present-day Euljiro-4-ga). There we saw a line of ten "tandem trains" (a larger car pulling a smaller one). Maehara, embarrassed, remarked, "Well, here comes another tandem." When we asked the cause at the front of the line, we learned it was a motor failure.

Maehara: "It is generally the same things: motor failures, brake issues, ball bearings, or circuit breakers causing what we call 'clumped operations'—and this greatly inconveniences passengers. Many of the faults cannot be repaired on-site."

Reporter: "How many 'clumps' occur each day?"
Maehara: "I do not know. We do not receive reports on each one."

Reporter: "Is there no enthusiasm for gathering data on such issues?"
Maehara: "Handling clumps while trains are in operation is a longstanding problem that the railway society has been studying, but with breakdowns happening so frequently, we must indeed put more effort into it. We would like to draw on the wisdom of scientists in the city. Seoul Electric is also studying this issue, but there are already more than ten different causes of clumping alone."

As an experiment, we tried recording the [westbound] passing trains headed for Kōgane Station and the [eastbound] passing trains bound for 6-chōme (present-day Dongdaemun History and Culture Park Station). From 6:51 PM, we observed the following departures:

• 6:51 PM, train headed for Kōgane Station
• 7:00 PM, train headed for Kōgane Station
• 7:16 PM, train headed for Kōgane Station
• 7:17 PM, train headed for Kōgane Station
• 7:20 PM, train headed for Kōgane Station
• 7:25 PM, train headed for Kōgane Station

It was not until 30 minutes later that a Wangsimni-bound train finally arrived. It was a small train, with passengers spilling out from both entrances. The train slowly came to a stop, packed so dangerously that it was unbearable to watch. Following that, two Wangsimni-bound trains arrived, and ironically, the third one was nearly empty. For a line that transports 90,000 commuters a day, the operation of the Wangsimni line was nothing short of terribly inefficient, a 'skewer dumpling' style of operation.

Reporter: "What about adjusting train destinations at key points to better manage flow?"
Maehara: "Passengers are uncooperative, and changing the destination in the middle of a route only causes more confusion."

Reporter: "If leaving the task of managing the confusion to lower-level employees results in further disorder, then it would be better to assign staff at key points. The real issue is breaking away from outdated concepts of train operation. It seems we are too bound by conventional practices."

At the train station in Donam-dong there was still a massive crowd of about 400 people waiting. At its peak, the crowd can reach 600. At Jongno 4-Chōme (present-day Jongno 4-ga), another large crowd was waiting. The route, which carries 80,000 daily commuters with only eight cars, was managed relatively smoothly, but the Kōgane Line saw passenger surges that drastically reduced operational efficiency. While passenger management in 'skewer dumpling trains' is going relatively well, there are still issues such as trains pretending to be broken ('moving broken cars'), trains speeding away even though there is still space for more passengers ('jump trains'), trains that ignore waiting passengers at stops ('slipping trains'), and trains running without clear destinations ('black trains'). Clearly, there are still significant gaps in the education of the train operators.

Maehara: "There is clearly a lack of adequate training for the crew, but it seems we are still feeling the aftereffects of having overemphasized the improvement of train turnaround rates for a period. We are determined to make every effort to address this."

While there are certainly ongoing challenges and 'impossible' situations, Maehara’s dedication to his work is evident. He is known for late-night sessions with experts, formulating plans to improve operations. The people of Seoul have great expectations for him as the new senior executive at Seoul Electric.
[Photo: Executive Maehara guiding workers on-site]

[Transcription]

京城日報 1945年8月3日
上手に電車よ走れ
穂積社長と混雑緩和問答
修理困難に閉口

やっと電車が来たかと思うと押し合いへし合い阿鼻叫喚、正しく交通地獄だ。戦う京城府民の『足』の問題は悩みの種である。輸送緩和へなんとか施策はないものか。府民の此の苦情を京電本社へ持ち込み打開究明の二題＝先ず穂積社長の肚を叩いて電車を走らそうとする問答

一掃したい故障車
問：輸送が混雑する根本原因は何か？
答：もとは全車輌の九十五パーセントを動かしていたのが京電の自慢だったが、今は修繕が行き届かない。車輌も足らないモーターも手に入らない、そこで無理に親子電車を引張るのだが無理をするから更に故障が増えるという始末だ。乗務員の欠勤率も揚っている。
問：資材難は仕方ないとしても技術者現役生徒の勤労奉仕も車輌修繕を手伝わしたり労務管理を徹底すれば或る程度混雑は緩和されないか？
答：夫は君、電気会社だけすることかね。最近雨の為に故障車は増えているし修理の手は勿論緊要だし乗務員の身分的安定も考慮せねばならぬ。従業員の食糧、資材斡旋等関係官庁の助力が必要で府民の交通道徳の昂揚も緩和策だ。
問：無駄な人を運ばないようにすればどうか？
答：最近買出し部隊がめっきり増えてきて大きな荷物を持ち込み混雑の一因となっているが、然らばほんとうに用がある人とは何か。買出しも食う為にはどうしてもやらなければならぬ状態だから其の人にとっては無用だとは言えぬではないか。配車ももっと考慮すべきだと思う。
問：事故が増えてきた様だが？
答：一般に注意力が減ってきている。乗務員もそうだ。此の点恐縮している。然し近頃の状態を見ているとまるで野暮人と野暮人の競合だよ。京電は電車を動かすが乗客の交通道徳とか訓練は他にやるべき機関があるではないか。運転手の再教育は必要だと思う。
問：何とか輸送緩和へ京電の決戦施策はないか？
答：いいかね君、食物も少ないと喧嘩をする。輸送も車輌さえあれば問題ない。其の為には修繕の『手』を搔き集めたい。そうすれば元通り復活することは不可能ではない。

芸の無い配車ぶり
紳士車掌前原さん思案投げ首
都心生活に道徳心も明朗性も先ず電車運営の妙味が大きく揺らぐ。京城電車幹部の陣頭指揮に同行。現場の実体を衝く。
『押すな潰れるぞ何言うか、ぼやぼやするな！』
午後五時頃混雑絶頂の黄金町入口で客をさばき乍ら『御順に中へ願います、まだ乗れますから中へ詰めて下さい』懸命に名車掌ぶりを発揮しているのが中年の紳士車掌。これが京電前原常務だ。記者が乞うて混雑電車打開の現場問答に出て貰った姿だ。
『そんなに詰められるかい、人間は荷物じゃないぞ』と怒声が飛んで来て常務の縮んだ首が苦笑する。
『常務も電車てうものに乗りますか』
『冗談ではない。三日にあげず乗っている』
以下馬鹿囃子で締め上げる様にして乗った記者との車中問答。
『この混雑は何とかならんか。此の前も肋骨二本を折って入院した客もある』
『会社の不勉強で決戦輸送に充分の奉仕が出来ず申し訳ない。何と言っても電車が足らない。昨年末の混雑時に較べて現在は更に三割減車している。それに加えて毎日一日出庫した車が故障で入庫するが其の数は二割五分に達している』
『修理能力の強化は出来ぬか』
『工員不足だ』
『工員不足だ、と放っては擱けまい』
『勿論電車も兵器だの信念で工員教育と、工員募集に努力している。近く充足会社としての工員待遇の規定が適用されれば工員も落ちつくと思うが当局の措置も遅い憾みがある』
『それにしても極端に減車した今日、電車の操車技術にも思い切った新構想を行うのは会社として第一の要点ではないか』
『考えてはいるが困難だ』
永楽町では乗客が大分下車して、待っていた客のかなりが乗車出来た。交叉点技術を突っ込んでいる。
『例えば此の線には南大門方面からと西大門方面からの車が二重に集まるので此処迄歩けば幾何か楽に乗れる。もし黄金町入口の二つの乗場を黄金町線側に統合したら車の利用率はぐっと上がると思うが』
『夫は精密に計算してみないと優劣は解らない。高等数学の『組合』の問題だ。それにゴーストップの信号が全然別個の管轄だから厄介だ』
『精密に計算してみたことがあるか』
『それはない。然し電車は交叉点前で止まるのが定石だ。定石を打破してみるのが肝要ではないか』
黄金町四丁目で降りてみる。丁度来合わせた十輌も重なった「親子電車」に『いや端へ向の親子が来ましたね』と常務卿が照れた形だ。先頭の車に原因を訊くとモーターの故障だ。
『大体時々廻ってみて解るのはモーターの故障、制動器、ボール、遮断器と色々の故障の為に大小の団子運転を作っているが之が乗客に大変な迷惑をお掛けしている。現場で修理出来ぬものも多い』
『一日にどれ程団子を作っているか』
『それは解らない。一々報告がない』
『それ位の統計を作るだけの研究熱意はないのか』
『．．．団子の「運行中処理は」電車学会の宿題になっているが、こう故障が頻発しては大いに研究せねばならない。街の科学者の知恵も借りたい所だ。京電でも研究中だが、団子の原因と種類だけでも十数程ある』
試みに二人で黄金町から六丁目方面行きの通過車輌を記録してみる。六時五十一分黄金町行、七時黄金町行、七時十六分続いて黄金町行、七時十七分同、七時二十分同、七時二十五分同、始めてから三十分後にやっと往十里行が来る。しかも小型の両入口にはみ出した客が鈴成りのまま徐行して止まる。危なくてみておれない。続いて往十里行が二台、三台目は皮肉にも空いている。日に九万人の通勤者を運ぶ往十里線の操車はこれでは拙劣此上もない『串団子』運転だ。
『時々要地点で行先変更をやり調節してはどうか』
『乗客が無理解で出来ないものもかえって混乱して収拾がつかぬ』
『混乱を整理するための処置を下級従業員に委せて、混乱するのなら要所に係を配置してやればよいだろう。問題は古い操車通念を打破することだ。どうも操車上の「定石」に囚れているように思う』
敦岩町の停留所は相変わらず長蛇の列でざっと四百名が押しかけている。多い時は六百を超えている。鐘路四丁目でもまた大物長蛇が待っているが、一日八万の通勤者を僅か八輌の車が運んでいる。それでも比較的順調な一本運転に対して黄金町線の客が波状的に殺到するから運用率は全然低下している。ここの乗客整理はうまく行っていた『串団子電車』もさることながら故障を偽った「動く故障車」まだ空いているのに客を振り切って走る「跳び出し電車」停車点の客を無視して行き過ぎる「滑り込み電車」行き先も前後も解らず走る「闇電車」等々まだまだ運転手教育に不充分の處がある。
『全く乗務員教育の足らん處だが一時回車率向上を強調した余波がまだあるようだ。極力努力したいと思っている』
問題は勿論困難と『不可能』の続出かも知らぬが、技術畑に鍛えたという仕事への熱と追及力が充分みられ、陣頭指揮の一方、夜おそく迄専門家と首引で構想を錬ると言う新常務前原鷹氏の仕事ぶりは府民が大いに期待する處だ。

【写真＝現場で整理員指導中の前原京電常務】

The original source can be checked out at the National Library of Korea, which I visited in September 2023 to take the following photos of the newspaper copies:

Colonial regime called for intensified Imperialist training to make Koreans more ‘Japanese’ to address low morale, high turnover rates, and black market activities among Korean forced laborers in 1944 Japan

This 1944 wartime editorial, written by the staff of the Keijo Nippo newspaper, calls for Japanese-Korean unity as it addresses the discriminatory attitudes that Japanese people held against Korean forced laborers in mainland Japan. The article attempts to present a balanced critique, admonishing both Koreans and Japanese for their inability to get along. It scolds Koreans for seeking equality while also chastising Japanese for harboring a superiority complex. However, the overall tone of the article is far from balanced, as it is much more critical of Koreans than of Japanese. That is understandable, given that Keijo Nippo was the propaganda organ of the Imperial Japanese colonial regime which ruled Korea from 1905 to 1945.

As mentioned in this editorial article, Korean forced laborers in Japan apparently had gained a reputation for their involvement in black market activities and high turnover rates in mining camps. The historic Sado gold mine was one of many such mining camps that were notorious for the abusive treatment of forced laborers. These laborers likely resorted to the black market to secure basic necessities such as food, clothing, and shelter—needs that, by the editorial writers' own admission, were not adequately met.

To modern readers, the obvious solution to these issues would be to improve working conditions and treat the laborers more humanely. However, the editorial staff instead callously called for intensified "Imperial education" as the primary solution. This approach aimed to force Japanese culture and State Shinto religion upon the Koreans, with the belief that making them more "Japanese" would lead to greater morality, harder work, and less involvement in illegal activities. Improvements in dining facilities, housing, and clothing were only mentioned in passing as secondary considerations. In fact, 1944 was the year when the colonial regime intensified its religiosity, forcing Koreans to build thousands of Shinto shrines in the midst of a desperate war, despite severe labor and material shortages.

This editorial is noteworthy because, for an article from 1944 discussing Japanese-Korean relations, it is surprisingly frank about the deep-seated prejudices many Japanese held (and still hold) against Zainichi Koreans, including beliefs that they are prone to criminality and laziness. It highlights the long-standing roots of anti-Korean prejudice among the Japanese, which trace back to the colonial period of Korean history.

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) April 7, 1944

Editorial

**Strive for Total Harmony Between Japanese and Koreans**

Recently, there have been numerous criticisms concerning the thoughts and actions of Koreans residing in mainland Japan. Director-General Tanaka, who recently returned from attending the assembly, has pointed this out as well. The issue appears to revolve around the frequent engagement of Koreans in black-market dealings and the high mobility rate of workers in industries such as mining, which has drawn criticism by mainland Japanese people. Unfortunately, to a certain extent, these claims are based on facts that cannot be entirely denied. Of course, it is not only Koreans who commit such black-market activities; there are still some mainland Japanese who lack a sense of discipline and engage in these practices as well. However, the problem lies in the disproportionately high number of Koreans involved in these criminal activities.

The fact that many Koreans engage in black-market activities is, in the end, evidence that they generally have a lower level of education compared to mainland Japanese, lack war awareness, and have not fully embraced the concept of the National Body. Therefore, the only solution is the thorough implementation of Imperial education. However, recent circumstances show that the negative feelings and discriminatory attitudes of the mainland Japanese towards Koreans stem from these issues and have led to a tendency where Koreans are viewed with a biased perspective in all matters. It is evident that the Japanese, too, have their share of misunderstandings, and there is a sense of emotional stubbornness that cannot be ignored. In other words, there seems to be a tendency to make hasty judgments based on preconceived notions, leading to a form of prejudice.

The less educated and less understanding the Koreans are, the more the Japanese, who play the role of the elder brother, must approach them with warmth, kindness, and generosity. The Japanese must embrace and guide them with a broader, more tolerant mindset. In short, there is a lack of mutual affection and harmony. This is not only true for the Japanese, but Koreans also need to engage in self-reflection.

The high mobility rate of workers in industries such as mining ultimately boils down to a mental issue within Koreans themselves. At the same time, a significant part of the problem stems from the lack of affection and harmony in the attitudes of the Japanese towards Koreans, which should have been the foundation of their relationship.

However, it should be noted that there is still much room for research and improvement regarding the guidance and management of the Korean population residing in mainland Japan, both at the Government-General of Korea and the relevant institutions in Japan. First and foremost is the training of Koreans. It goes without saying that Imperial training must be carried out at every opportunity in all regions moving forward, and for this purpose, it is essential to enhance the training institutions. Secondly, the improvement of welfare and other management facilities is critical. It is necessary to allow workers who have come without their families to bring them along, and special consideration should be given to improving the dining facilities at workplaces, as well as providing housing, clothing, and other essentials. The relevant authorities should take comprehensive measures in this regard.

Koreans tend to call for equality, while the Japanese tend to harbor feelings of superiority. Both are equally significant shortcomings that require reflection. The Imperial Rule Assistance Association is currently preparing to address this Korean issue and is ready to launch a national movement under the banner of "Total Japanese-Korean Harmony". Some may feel that it is too late to discuss Japanese-Korean harmony now, but total harmony is not only a demand between Japanese and Koreans; it is also a war imperative that must be called for even among the Japanese themselves. In other words, there is no limit to how much we can demand total harmony from the public. We place great expectations on this national movement.

[Transcription]

京城日報 1944年4月7日

社説

内鮮総親和に努めよ

最近内地に在住する半島人の思想や行動についてとかくの批評を聴くようである。議会出席から帰任した田中政務総監もこれを指摘している。問題は半島人側に闇取引きをなすものが多いということと鉱山労働者などの移動率が頗る高いというところに対する内地人側の避難にあるようである。之は或る程度事実であることを遺憾ながら認めないわけにはいかない。勿論闇行為を犯すものは半島人に限られているわけでななく、一部内地人の不心得者もなお依然としてその後を絶たないのであるが、その犯罪数の割合が特に半島人側において多いというところに問題があるのである。

半島人に闇行為者が多いということは結局それだけ内地人に比して一般に教養の度が低く、戦争意識に欠け、国体観念に徹していないという証拠にほかならぬ。従ってその対策は皇民教育の徹底に俟つほかはないのであるが、内地人の半島人に対する悪感情や差別態度がこの辺から出発して、一般に何事に対しても常に色眼鏡を以って半島人を見るという傾向に飛躍している昨今の事態については、内地人側にもまた見逃すことの出来ぬ誤解もあり、捉われた感情の固執があるのではないかと思われる。すなわちそこに一を以って十を律しようという速断的な考え方が殆ど先入主となっている嫌いがあるのではないか。

半島人が教養が低く、理解力の乏しいものであればあるほど兄貴分に当たる内地人はもう一つ温き親切を以ってこれに当たり、もう一つ大きい襟度を以ってこれを抱擁し、指導するていの度量がなくてはならない。要するに相親相和の気持ちが足りないのである。それは内地人に対しても言えることであり、半島人に対しても反省を需めねばならぬことである。

鉱山労務者の移動率が高いということも結局は半島人自体の精神の問題に帰着するが、また相親相和に出発すべき内地人の半島人に対する態度に、いろいろの意味において欠けるところのものがあることも大きな原因をなしている。

しかしながら内地在住の半島人問題は総督府においてもまた内地における関係機関においても指導と管理の徹底を示すところにまた大きな研究の余地が残っていることを知るべきである。まず第一に半島人の錬成である。この皇民錬成は今後機会ある毎に各所においてなすべきは勿論であって、そのためには錬成機関の充実を行う必要を痛感する。第二には厚生その他の管理施設の充実である。家族を伴わぬ労務者に家族を伴わせることも必要であり、職場における板場の改善、住宅、衣料などの特別配慮もいうまでもなく肝要である。関係当局はこの意味において万全の対策を講ずべきであろう。

半島人はとかく、平等ということを叫びたがる。内地人はとかく優越感を抱きたがる。何れも同じく反省するに足る欠点である。大政翼賛会では近く、この半島人問題をとりあげ、内鮮総親和というべき国民運動を展開すべく準備中であるという。今ごろ内鮮融和でもあるまいといった印象を受けるものもあるかもしれぬが、総親和ということはひとり内鮮人間に要求されるものでなく、内地人同志間にも求めらるべき戦争の要請である。すなわち総親和ということはいかに声を大にし、幾度回を重ねて国民に求めても、これに過ぎるという問題ではない。われらはこの国民運動に多大の期待をかけたい。

Source: https://archive.org/details/kjnp-1944-04-07/mode/1up

Korean forced laborers worked the Gyeongsan cobalt mine under Japanese control from 1940 to 1945, which later became the site of a massacre of political prisoners in 1950 at the onset of the Korean War

This article from 1943 highlights Korean forced laborers in a Japanese-owned cobalt mine located in what is now Gyeongsan City. While recent news coverage has covered the controversy over the Korean forced laborers in the Sado Gold Mine, this article reminds us that, for every prominent mine like Sado Gold Mine, there were probably many other Imperial Japanese mines like it that receive much less public attention, but were also egregious in their use of Korean forced labor.

Female Korean workers descending the mountain of the cobalt mine.

According to the article, the laborers' work environment was heavily militarized like a prison camp. Like in the rest of colonial Korea, everyone was required to perform the mandatory daily 7 am and 12 noon prayers. There were usually loud sirens marking those two times of the day, and you had to immediately stop what you were doing and perform the prayers. The 7 am Kyūjō Yōhai ritual (宮城遥拝) involved deeply bowing several times in the direction of the Imperial Palace in Tokyo while standing, vowing loyalty to the Emperor. The noon prayer was a moment of silence in honor of the Imperial Japanese soldiers.

The laborers had only three rest days each month. These 'weekends' were filled with mandatory indoctrination sessions to enforce State Shinto religious practices and Japanese language classes. In a typical colonial tactic of pitting colonized people against each other, the laborers were divided into 'workplace patriotic groups'. Collaborators were recruited and appointed to control each group on behalf of the colonizers.

These patriotic groups were pitted against each other in competitions to curry favor with their bosses. They competed to be the most productive, efficient, and punctual in the mine. Fierce competition led one group to propose working for free on public holidays and donating their entire day's pay toward the war effort. This obsequious proposal was implemented and enforced across the entire labor force.

Patriotic groups (JP: aikoku-han, KR: aeguk-ban, 愛國班) were established not only in this mine, but also in neighborhoods and companies all over Korea to enforce colonial rule. All patriotic groups belonged to the Korean Federation of National Power (国民総力朝鮮連盟, 국민총력조선연맹), which functioned as the one and only political party of Korea.

After the Korean War, the mine became the site of the Gyeongsan Cobalt Mine Massacre (Namu Wiki article link) of July to September 1950, when the South Korean government brought political prisoners to the mine, beat, shot, and burned them with flame-throwers, and threw down the mine shaft, which was then dynamited to obscure evidence. During the military dictatorships and repressive regimes of President Rhee Syngman, General Chun Doo-hwan, and President Park Chung-hee, these atrocities were kept secret and surviving family members silenced. It was only in the year 2000 under the presidency of Kim Dae-jung that a special law related to the Jeju Uprising, another Korean War massacre site, was passed and all bereaved families members were finally encouraged and invited to register as such.

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) August 28, 1943

**Visiting the facilities to witness the increased production of special minerals (2)**

*The Noble Drug of the Ore World*

*Increased Production of Cobalt Ore*

**The Story of the Patriotic Mine**

It was January 1940 on a snowy day. A person from mainland Japan, accompanied by a hunting dog setter, was seen near the site of an abandoned gold mine in Amnyang-myeon (압량면, 押梁面) of Gyeongsan County, North Gyeongsang Province, which had long been idle. While casually approaching the abandoned mine with a hunting rifle on his shoulder, the dog, which had been walking ahead, suddenly fell into the shaft of the former mine, which had filled with groundwater to a depth of more than forty feet, turning it into a well. The man hurriedly ran to a nearby village for help and eventually managed to rescue his dog. During this process, he noticed a strange ore among the high piles of waste rock by the roadside. This ore turned out to be cobalt ore, which has since come into the spotlight as a prominent mineral, and the hunter from mainland Japan was none other than Mr. Shūzō Ninomiya, the owner of the current Patriotic Cobalt Mine.

◇

Initially, world production of cobalt was thought to be limited to certain regions: Canada 29%, France 26%, India 12%, and British Rhodesia (in Southern Africa) 33%. Although there were minor yields in Yamaguchi, Hyōgo, and Ehime Prefectures in Japan, and small quantities associated with gold and silver in arsenopyrite in Korea, these were so minimal that they were not economically viable to exploit.

However, cobalt, a precious resource often compared to a noble drug, is crucial for manufacturing scientific weapons under wartime conditions, serving as a special steel raw material with low wear for pistons, shafts, and cylinders. It is also an essential resource as a catalyst for synthetic oil and rubber. Therefore, the discovery of a vein with an estimated grade of [censored]% and an extension of [censored] kilometers was a significant stimulus to the concerned parties.

Thus, in January 1941, the "Patriotic Cobalt Mine" was formally registered. Coincidentally, the beloved dog that had led to the discovery of the mine died suddenly, adding a potential future legendary element to the mine's story.

Regardless, the military took a keen interest in the mine due to the ongoing war situation, and rapid production expansion began in January 1942 with their support.

◇

The journalist was granted special permission to tour the site with Mr. Ninomiya. While the exact production volume, facilities, plans, and labor details cannot be disclosed, it was astonishing to see the development progress achieved in just two years since securing a loan of [censored] million yen.

Out of the current labor force of [censored] people, [censored] are women and girls from the workers' families, and their good attendance record and operating rate of [censored]% reflect their deep commitment as wartime mine workers. This achievement is undoubtedly the result of enthusiastic guidance and constant training, as demonstrated by the military-style command of "Kiwotsuke! (Attention!)" upon the journalist's arrival at the office, followed by the mine owner's acknowledgment with "Keirei! (Salute!)" and the order to "Yasume! (At ease!)" before resuming work.

The daily routine includes a morning worship similar to that at Tatsushiro Mine, with Kyūjō Yōhai (prayers to the Imperial Palace), worshiping the mountain gods, silent contemplation, followed by instructions from the section managers. On the 8th, 18th, and 28th of each month, special training days are held with returning veteran lieutenants as instructors, conducting individual and group training. The managers also rotate through the different sections and conduct lectures on current events. What is particularly noteworthy about this mine are the workplace patriotic groups. These groups are organized by teams at each site with the team leader becoming the patriotic group leader. The groups hold informal Japanese language classes during lunch and meetings to facilitate communication between management and workers.

It goes without saying that all employees and workers wear traditional jika tabi footwear and kyahan leg wraps. However, they also uniformly have shaved heads, a practice initiated by the staff to set an example, which quickly spread throughout the workplace patriotic groups, resulting in everyone having shaved heads.

As an example of upward communication, during the recent collection of donations for the death of Admiral Yamamoto and the heroic defense of Attu Island by General Yamasaki's forces, the workplace patriotic groups originally proposed a plan to contribute a certain percentage of income. However, a decision was made at a meeting of team leaders to work on public holidays without pay with the resolve to "die in battle on any day", donating the entire day's income as a contribution. This resulted in a sacred sum of 1,200 yen being donated.

These efforts reflect the effectiveness of the workplace groups and the manifestation of a total mobilization movement from the ground up, also showing that they recognize the current wartime circumstances.

However, the mountain is still young. With the expansion of production facilities in full swing as the increased production period approaches, material procurement is progressing smoothly, and groundbreaking production facilities are expected to be completed soon. Plans for special bonuses during the increased production period with competitions for rewards for high work efficiency, perfect attendance, and no tardiness are also finalized. As the workers' enthusiasm for the upcoming increased production period reaches a peak, the mine is thriving with activity, unaffected by the baseless rumors circulating in the streets. In the near future, production is expected to double, which aligns with the urgent needs of wartime Japan. (Special Correspondent Watanabe)

*Photo: Female mine workers descending the mountain*

[Transcription]

京城日報 1943年8月28日

特殊鉱増産を現地に視る（２）

鉱石界の高貴薬

コバルト鉱に増産の槌

報国鉱山の巻

昭和十五年の一月、それは雪の日であった。慶北慶山郡押梁面の、今は休山と化した一金山の廃坑附近に猟犬セッターを連れた一内地人の姿が見受けられた。猟銃を肩に何気なく廃坑に近づいて二、三歩．．．途端に一足前を進んでいた愛犬が深さ四十尺余地下水が溜まって井戸と化した曾ての廃坑内に転げ落ちてしまった。慌てて附近の部落に駆け戻り助けを求めた上漸く愛犬を救い上げたが、その際路傍に堆高く積まれたズリの中に発見された異様な鉱石に彼の目は輝いたのである。その鉱石こそ今や時代の脚光を浴びる特殊鉱界の花形コバルト鉱であり、狩猟姿の一内地人とは、言う迄もなく現報国コバルト鉱山鉱業主二宮衆三氏であった。

◇

元来、コバルトの世界生産はカナダ29％、仏蘭西26％、印度12％、南阿の英領ローデシア地方33％という比率で他の地域からは産出しないものといわれていた。尤も本邦内にも山口、兵庫、愛媛の各県下に多少の産出を見、我が朝鮮でも硫砒鉄鉱中の金、銀に多少随伴するのではあるが、それらはあまりにも微量であって、その殆どが採算上企業化し得ないものである。

而もこのコバルトは摩滅度の小なる特殊鋼原料としてピストン、シャフト、シリンダー等決戦下の我が科学兵器製造上、高貴薬にも比すべき貴重資源であり且つ人造石油、合成ゴムの触媒としても極めて重要資源なのである。斯かる折柄、品位〇、〇％推定鉱脈延長〇キロの同鉱山が発見されたことは、関係方面に対し大きな衝動を与えるには十分であった。

かくて十六年一月『報国コバルト鉱山』として正式に登録されたが、この登録の完了と同時に不思議にもかの愛犬が頓死したことは、この山の発見に絡む一挿話として、或は将来に於ける山の伝説的物語ともなろうか。

さて、それは兎も角として、時局柄この山へ最も関心と期待を寄せたのは軍部で、その援助によって十七年一月始業、急速な増産が進められているのである。

◇

記者は特に許されて鉱主二宮氏に案内され、仔細に視察することを得たが、遺憾ながら茲にその生産量は勿論、生産施設や計画、労務について記述することを得ない。併しその開発ぶりが、〇百万円の融資を受けて以来僅か二年の間にこれ程迄に急速に進められた、ということについては驚嘆せざるを得なかったわけだ。

現在稼働労務者〇〇〇名のうち〇〇〇名はその家族たる婦女子であり、その出勤率を含めてもなお稼働率〇〇％という好成績は、流石に彼等が時局鉱山労務者としての認識に徹底していることを物語るものであるといえよう。勿論その稼働率の好成績も熱意ある指導と絶えざる錬成の結果によるものであることは断るまでもない。それは記者が鉱主に案内されて事務所に到着したとき先ず『気を付けっ』の軍隊式号令に迎えられたことによっても判るのである。そして『敬礼っ』鉱主の答礼を以て『休めっ』再び執務は続けられるという調子である。そこで、茲の錬成を簡単に紹介しよう。

始業前の朝拝は達城鉱山同様、宮城遥拝、山神拝礼、黙祷、係課長の訓示であるが、毎月八、十八、二十八の日は特別錬成日として帰還勇士の中尉を教官として各個教練、部隊教練を実施している。そして各課長が各区を巡回、時局講演を行っているが特に変っているのは職場愛国班である。それは各現場の組毎に班を組織し組長が班長となり昼食時、現場に於いて固苦しくない国語の教授を行うほか随時常会を開き上意下通と下意上通に努めているのである。

職員も鉱員も全部が地下足袋、巻脚絆であることは云わずもがなだが、それらの全員がまた一様に丸刈りであることもこの職場愛国班の徹底による結果である。即ち職員の側から提唱された丸刈り励行は職員の率先垂範と共に全職場愛国班に伝えられ、その申合せとなって瞬く間に全員が丸坊主化してしまったのであった。

また下意上通の一例として、去る日山本元帥の戦死、アツツ島山崎部隊の玉砕に際して行われた健艦献金には当初事務所側から収入の幾パーセント宛かを拠出という形式による旨を職場愛国班に図ったのであるが職場班班長会議の結果、公休日を休まず『一日戦死』の覚悟で働き抜き、その全収入を献金としようということに一決。即座に全班に伝えられ、その結果は一千二百円の聖なる汗の結晶が献金されたのである。

これらは職場班の効果であると共に所謂下より盛り上がる総力運動の顕現であり同時に時局認識の表われとしても注目に値するものであろう。

しかし山はまだ若い。増産期間を目前に控えた今、山は生産施設の拡充に多忙の真っ最中だ。幸い資材の入手は順調で近く画期的増産施設完成の見透しもついている。増産期間中の特例給与として職場能率競争、無欠勤、無遅刻者への表彰方法等の計画も出来上がった。初めて迎える増産期間への労務者の情熱も愈々高潮し、世にこの山のことども発表されざるが故の、巷間に流布される愚かなデマを他所に、山は極めて明瞭に活気づいている。近い将来にその出鉱量は恐らく倍加するであろう。そしてそれはまた戦時日本の切実な要求でもあるのだ。（渡辺特派員記）【写真＝山を降りる鉱婦たち】

Source: https://archive.org/details/kjnp-1943-08-28/mode/1up

Pro-Japanese Korean colonel (신태영)’s full 1943 speech offering Koreans redemption from their “shame” inherited from ancestors who made them “like cats and dogs” that seek safety and parental attachments over national duty, giving them a chance to volunteer in the Imperial Army

Throughout 1943 in colonial Korea, the main national newspaper of the country, Keijo Nippo (Gyeongseong Ilbo), was filled with war propaganda encouraging young Korean men to enlist in the Imperial Japanese military to fight Britain and America in the Pacific War. This article is just one of many such pieces of wartime propaganda published in 1943, but this speech particularly stands out in that it was written by a prominent pro-Japanese ethnic Korean military official (Colonel Shin Tae-young, aka Hirayama), and it contains a lot of self-hating, explicit language demeaning Korea and Koreans while encouraging young Koreans to become Japanese and volunteer to fight for Imperial Japan. 

Lieutenant Colonel Shin Tae-young, aka Hirayama

Hirayama had a long, distinguished in the Imperial Army which started around 1909 and lasted throughout the entire period of the Imperial Japanese colonization of Korea from 1910 to 1945. Interestingly, he went on to become Lieutenant General in the South Korean Army and Minister of National Defense of South Korea in 1952 and was eventually buried with honors in the Seoul National Cemetery, which is a heated point of controversy, as many Koreans believe that he was a traitor who does not deserve to be honored as a Korean national hero. I shared the first part of his memoir in a previous post. This is the second part of his memoir, which was published on November 18, 1943, the day after the first part was published.

Hirayama's rant can be a tedious read, but let's hone in particularly on what he says about Koreans. Hirayama accuses Koreans of being complacent and indifferent like spectators toward the war, being hypocritical for demanding more political rights but evading their responsibilities by making excuses for not enlisting, neglecting national duty, and cultivating a servile and selfish mindset. He blames these transgressions on the shame that Koreans supposedly inherited from their ancestors: a culture with a "soft, scholarly lifestyle" that places family above nation, a parental attachment to their children that is so strong it amounts to "animalistic love", and a concern with safety that amounts to "becoming like a dog or a cat".

Hirayama weaves in some Korean history by mentioning the Qing invasion of Joseon of 1636-1637 and bringing up obscure historical figures from that event such as Jeong Gwang-gyeong, Yun Jip, and Kim Ryu as examples of corrupt Korean officials who were dishonorable and shameless, as if to imply that modern Koreans inherited their national shame from ancestors like these figures.

Hirayama then offers Koreans a way to redeem themselves and free themselves of this inherited ancestral shame: by volunteering and enlisting in the Imperial Japanese Military, which would instill in them the Japanese spirit and discipline and fully transform them into loyal, pure Japanese people, thereby achieving true Japanese-Korean unification. 

Hirayama then makes some threats against Koreans in his rant. He says, "Koreans must realize that their own actions have always led to the downfall of Korea", as if to preemptively blame the Koreans for the defeat of Imperial Japan, if it happens. Towards the end of the rant, he warns that, if any Korean student has to be forcibly conscripted because he didn't volunteer, then the honor of Koreans will be completely tarnished. Thus, Koreans are supposedly collectively responsible for their actions as a group, rather than as individuals, so if any Korean fails to volunteer, then all Koreans have to suffer the consequences of the loss of honor because of that one Korean individual's treacherous actions.

Hirayama denies being bribed by authorities or requested by the Imperial military to publish this speech, but his decades-long career with the Imperial Army and prominent rank seem to indicate that he has already received many favors from the colonial authorities and the Imperial Army for his many years of collaboration.

It's especially striking how dark and ominous the tone of Part 2 is compared to Part 1, which has more of a personal, heartfelt tone. It's also interesting that Hirayama identifies himself more as a Korean in Part 2, and identifies himself more as a Japanese in Part 1. The two parts of the memoir seem to depict a complex man with many inner contradictions and conflicts, straddling and attempting to reconcile two different cultures and ethnicities: Korean and Japanese.

Note: "Yamato people" refers to ethnic Japanese people throughout the memoir.

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) November 18, 1943

The Future of Korea Depends on the Students (Part 2)

Memoir by Imperial Army Lieutenant Colonel Hirayama Hoei, an ethnic Korean

Decide Without Hesitation!

The only way forward is to become loyal and good Imperial subjects

As the Manchurian Incident evolved into the China Incident, the sincerity of Korean patriotism was recognized. As a prerequisite for the implementation of the conscription system in Korea, the special volunteer soldier system was introduced, and many volunteers have already participated in actual combat. These special volunteers have demonstrated their true value as members of the Imperial Army, proving themselves equal to the pure Yamato (Japanese) people. As the Greater East Asia War progresses, the number of volunteers has dramatically increased each year. The patriotism of the Korean people as a whole has reached its peak. As a result, the long-standing desire of Koreans for the implementation of the conscription system has been realized with the promulgation of the relevant laws in the midst of the Greater East Asia War. This system is scheduled to be implemented starting next year, with compulsory education set to commence in 1946.

When comparing this to the state of internal Korean-Japanese relations from the time of the annexation of Korea until very recently, it must be recognized that this represents a rapid and significant transformation for Korea. We must be confident that the foundation for Japanese-Korean unification has already been established. In times of peace and security, there were calls for the implementation of compulsory education, the establishment of a conscription system, and the granting of political rights. However, when faced with a national crisis of life and death, there were those who resorted to pointless arguments to evade their responsibilities. Can Koreans, both now and in the future, truly live their lives this way?

Today's Greater East Asia War is a decisive battle where the entire Greater East Asian population, risking their lives, is fighting against the long-standing enemies of three hundred years, the United States and Britain. The billion people of Greater East Asia are fighting with all their heart and soul. Can Koreans alone remain complacent and indifferent like spectators? If the Empire loses this battle, the billion people of Greater East Asia will face extinction. Can Koreans alone believe that they can prosper?

Given the current situation, all people within the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, regardless of their location or circumstances, must transcend all emotions and personal interests. Without any excuses, this is the autumn when both the old and young, men and women, must rise, unite, and dedicate their lives to the destruction of the United States and Britain. It is truly disheartening to see some people making petty excuses regarding the newly promulgated special volunteer temporary recruitment regulations. At the very least, it makes me feel deeply ashamed to have been born in Korea. What a pitiful state this is!

Modern Koreans, especially qualified students and their parents, siblings, and other family members, should be genuinely fueled by patriotism and deeply understand the current situation. They should truly think about themselves and their families, be aware of the shame of Korea, and awaken to their mission as Japanese people. If this is the case, regardless of the content of the authorities' talks on the laws, whether it is in the form of voluntary enlistment or forced conscription, whether they are to be officers or ordinary soldiers, they should not be concerned with such trivial matters. Rather, they should compete against each other to be the first to join the military ranks.

Moreover, the current special temporary recruitment of volunteers is an unprecedented and significant favor for Korea, providing absolute light and hope for Korea's future. Let us reflect deeply on this together. How much do you think the Imperial Army is mobilizing in the current Greater East Asia War? Even considering just the occupied territories, it is common sense to imagine that the number reaches millions. Despite moving such a large force, it is clear that there are still ample human resources available, considering that, as in peacetime, only able-bodied men aged twenty are required to serve in the military.

In such circumstances, what difference would it make to mobilize five or six thousand Korean students? It is common sense that moving a large force requires a significant number of officers. Students from specialized schools and above in mainland Japan enter the army as officer personnel. If Korean students who have studied alongside them are left behind, it would indeed be an insult to Koreans and a form of discrimination against Koreans by the Japanese. Furthermore, most of the students from specialized schools and above, who are set to be conscripted next year, and their families are part of the intellectual and leadership class in Korea.

By becoming officers in the army, these individuals will become the forerunners for the thousands of soldiers who will be conscripted and join the army next year, rapidly achieving Japanese-Korean unification. Moreover, only by receiving military education can these core members truly grasp the Japanese spirit and bear the significant responsibility of leading the future of Korea.

The outcome of the Greater East Asia War has already been determined. An absolutely impregnable strategic stance has been established. No matter how much the United States and Britain struggle, they cannot possibly reverse this overwhelming trend. It does not matter what happens to Italy or if the Soviet Union confronts us; such matters have no bearing on the outcome of the Greater East Asia War. Victory is undoubtedly ours.

Our belief in inevitable victory is unshakable. When the Empire achieves victory, what will those Koreans who have adopted their current attitude have to say for themselves? They will likely find no place to set foot within the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. Conversely, can they now really turn to the United States or Britain? Koreans must realize that their own actions have always led to the downfall of Korea.

Moreover, if even one person fails to volunteer and is looked down upon, do you think your juniors will be able to study alongside students from mainland Japan without feeling disgrace? Do you believe that such disloyal Koreans deserve higher education beyond the level of specialized schools? Those hesitant to volunteer have various complicated reasons. While there may be some truth in these reasons, the fact remains that if modern Koreans truly awaken to the current situation and willingly dedicate their lives to the Empire, these issues should soon be resolved as a natural consequence. And if, after displaying such loyalty as Imperial subjects, these issues remain unresolved, then it would be appropriate to make demands openly.

In any case, the survival of Korea lies in the hands of Koreans themselves. The path that Koreans must take should be paved by Koreans themselves. The reason I am speaking out so passionately is not because I have been requested by the military or bribed by the authorities. It is simply because, as one of the Emperor's subjects and particularly as a Korean, I cannot remain indifferent in the face of this situation. I was born in Korea and am well acquainted with Korean circumstances. When I dissect the psychology of those who are hesitant to express their willingness to volunteer, I can assert without hesitation that their various excuses are merely pretexts to avoid volunteering.

Historically, Korea has been characterized by an excessively misguided sense of familial attachment. Apart from the modern youth, anyone who is older will likely be familiar with the Qing Invasion of Joseon. This major event in Korean history occurred 308 years ago. Qing troops invaded Korea, and the king, along with his high officials, retreated and took refuge in Namhansanseong Fortress. The Qing troops besieged the fortress for forty-five days, placing Korea in a dire crisis of survival.

In such a national emergency, there was not a single person who earnestly tried to resolve the difficult situation. Arguments and debates ensued, with everyone stubbornly adhering to their own opinions, resulting in mere verbal conflicts. Jeong Gwang-gyeong, the Seungji (a high-ranking official), upon hearing that his elderly father’s place of refuge was attacked by the Qing troops, submitted his resignation, saying, "My mind is in chaos, my spirit is already scattered, and I am unable to fulfill my duties," and he returned home. Vice Chancellor Yun Jip, an extreme advocate of war who even attempted to kill a peace advocate, also lost his composure when he heard that the enemy had invaded Namyang, where his grandfather, wife, and siblings had taken refuge. He claimed, "I have lost my mind, my senses are confused, I have lost my sanity, and I cannot perform my duties," and requested to be relieved of his position.

An extreme example is the then Prime Minister and Chief of Staff, Kim Ryu. The queen had taken refuge on Ganghwa Island, and despite the king being worried about the lack of military preparations and struggling day and night with war expenses and provisions, Kim Ryu's private residence was guarded by government troops. His wife traveled around in a sedan chair, and his wealth was said to amount to seventy cartloads. This was the behavior of the nation's prime minister. He placed his own interests above those of his lord, his family above the nation. There was neither national honor nor shame in such conduct.

I do not believe that all Koreans are like this, nor do I think that the Korean spirit is inherently this way. As history has shown, Koreans possess a sense of righteous indignation and a latent spirit to live for a noble cause. However, years of a soft, scholarly lifestyle have ultimately led to a neglect of national duty and the cultivation of a servile and selfish mindset, which has persisted to this day. Modern Korean parents have a tendency to rely excessively on their children. What parents expect from their children is the eternal continuation of their lineage. The meaning of eternal continuation is not only the flourishing of descendants and the unbroken continuation of the lineage, but it must also naturally include the preservation of the family's honor.

However, today's Korean parents and grandparents are filled with the desire to rely on their descendants as they age. They are not content unless they keep their children and grandchildren close, like flowers to be admired, always under their care. If a child tries to engage in any manly endeavor, they are immediately stopped and led into passivity and retreat. It is hard to understand the mindset of parents who have children merely to rely on them in old age and to be taken care of by them. It is truly a disgraceful and laughable lack of spirit, something to be despised. Parents and grandparents cannot live forever, but the lives of their descendants are long. Parents should abandon their selfish wickedness and be content with praying for the future prosperity of their children.

Unlike the feudal era of the past, especially in modern times when the world is the stage, what do you intend to achieve in a tiny place like Korea? The love of parents who want to keep their children attached to them is something even dogs and cats possess. Humans should not be drowned in such animalistic love. Filial piety to parents is not a duty or a law; it is a morality based on natural reason. It must arise from the heart, without the need for parental demands. Filial piety is the foundation of human morality. However, being in perpetual attachment to one's parents is not the entirety of filial piety.

Modern young men, break away from the old ways! Your stage is vast and wide open. Break down outdated customs, and with firm determination, persuade your parents and grandparents, and boldly seize this once-in-a-lifetime opportunity. The fate of success or failure rests on your shoulders.

Some have said that they will not enlist even if conscripted. What a despicable and shameful mindset! Are you content to be safe, even if it means being trampled, kicked, or becoming like a dog or a cat? Do you not understand the meaning of conscription? Being conscripted does not necessarily mean you will be working only in Korea or mainland Japan. Why would conscription be necessary in places like Korea and mainland Japan, which have such poor resources? Even if conscripted, you will inevitably go to the front lines and work alongside brave soldiers. You will go to the battlefield, whether you are fighting with swords and guns or working with shovels, hammers, and pickaxes. You must also be prepared to face enemy air raids. You will need to receive the baptism of artillery fire from the enemy. Whether you die gloriously as an Imperial soldier who does not know when he will die, or die as a forced conscript, which is more honorable? If even one forced conscript emerges among Korean students, the honor of Koreans will be completely tarnished.

Humans are living beings who live by conviction. Where there is conviction, there is effort, hope arises, security accompanies, and there is joy. Our only path is to dedicate our lives to serving the Emperor and the nation as loyal Japanese subjects. We must firmly hold this conviction. It is absolute and unconditional. The time is imminent. Let us decide quickly and without hesitation.

[Transcription]

京城日報 1943年11月18日

朝鮮の将来は学徒に懸る（下）

半島出身陸軍中佐平山輔英 （手記）

躊躇なく決心せよ

唯一途、忠良の臣民たれ

一面満州事変より支那事変となるに及び朝鮮人の愛国の至誠が認められ、朝鮮に於ける徴兵制度実施の前提として特別志願兵制度が実施せられ、既に幾多の志願兵が実戦に参加しているのであるが、これ等特別志願兵がよく皇軍の一員としてその真価を発揮し純粋大和民族と同等遜色がなきのみならず大東亜戦争に及び逐年志願者の数も激増し、朝鮮人全体の愛国の熱も最高調に達していることを認められたので、我等朝鮮人の多年の宿望たる朝鮮に於ける徴兵制度実施に関する法令が大東亜戦争の真最中に発布せられて、明年度より実施の段取りとなって居り、続いて義務教育の実施も明後昭和二十一年度に控えるようになったのである。

之を韓国併合当時から、極めて最近までの内鮮関係に較べて見ると朝鮮に取っては急速なる一大変革であって内鮮一体の基礎は既に確立されていると確信せねばならぬ。無事太平の時にはやれ義務教育を実施してくれ、徴兵制度を布いてくれ、やれ参政権を与えてくれなどと得手勝手な熱を吹いて居りながら、いざ国家の危急存亡の一大危局に直面すると何の彼のと屁理屈を言い出して、自己の責任を遁れようとしている。こんなことで果して現在及び将来の朝鮮人が人生として生き抜くことが出来るであろうか。

今日の大東亜戦争は三百年来の宿敵米英との大東亜全民族の身命を賭しての一大決戦だ。大東亜十億の民族は理屈抜きに心血を注いで闘っているのだ。独り朝鮮人のみが恬然として安閑として傍観的態度を取っていられようか。此の一戦に於いて若しも帝国が負けたならば、大東亜十億の民族が滅亡するのである。独り朝鮮人のみが繁栄し得るものと信じていられるであろうか。

今日の情勢は大東亜圏内に於ける民族である限り、その處と事情との如何に拘わらず、凡ての感情、凡ての個人的利害関係を超越し、凡ての理屈を抜きにして老いも若きも女も男も蹶然起ち一致団結して米英撃滅の為に身魂を注いで闘い抜くべき秋である。今回発布せられた特別志願兵臨時採用規則に就いても動もすれば屁理屈を言い度がるものが相当にあるのを見るのは誠に慨嘆に堪えないことであって、少くも私自身が此の朝鮮に生れたことが恥ずかしくて堪えられないのだ。何という情けない状態であろう。

現代の朝鮮人わけても適格者たる学徒並びにその父母兄弟姉妹にして真に憂国の真情に燃え、現時局を深く認識し真に一身一家を思い、朝鮮の恥を知り、日本人としての使命に目覚めて居るとしたら、法令に関する当局の講話の内容がどうあろうと、自由志願の形式であろうと強制であろうと、幹部要員ではなく唯の一兵であろうと、そんな些末なことに頓着することなく、先を争って軍門に投ずべきではないか。

況や今回の特別志願兵の臨時採用が朝鮮のためには画期的一大恩典であって朝鮮の将来に絶対なる光明と希望とが与えられているに於いておやである。お互いによくよく反省して見ようではないか。今の大東亜戦争に於いて皇軍は一体どの位動いていると思うのか。占領地域のみを以て考えて見ても幾百万という数に上っていることは常識として想像着くことであろう。その大兵を動かして居りながら、人的資源は未だ未だ十二分に余裕のあることは、平時と同様満二十歳の壮丁に限り兵役に服している現実から考えて見ても明らかではないか。

そのような実情に於いて朝鮮学徒の五千や六千を駆り立てて見た所で何の足しになろう。大兵を動かすのには大量の幹部を必要とすることは常識だ。内地人専門学校以上の学徒はその幹部要員として入営するのだ。今まで机を並べて学んで居った朝鮮学徒が取り残されることは是こそ朝鮮人侮辱であり内鮮差別ではないか。而も明年度に徴兵実施を控えている専門学校以上の学徒並びにその学徒を出したる家庭と言わば例外は別としてその大部分が朝鮮に於ける有識階級であり、指導階級にあるのだ。

それらのものが陸軍の幹部となることに依って明年度徴兵実施に伴い入営する幾万の兵の楔となり内鮮一体の実を急速に成し遂げ得るのみならず、是れ等中堅層のものが軍隊教育を受くることに依ってのみ真に日本精神を把握し将来の朝鮮を背負って起ち得るところの重大なる責任があるのだ。

大東亜戦争の勝敗は既にきまって居る。絶対不敗の鉄壁の戦略態勢が完成されているのだ。米英が如何に藻掻いても此の大勢を挽回することは絶対に出来ない。伊太利がどうなろうとソビエトロシアが立向かって来ようと、そんなことは大東亜戦争の勝敗に何等の影響もない。勝利は正に此方のものだ。

必勝の信念は牢固であるのだ。帝国が戦勝の暁に於いて今日の態度を取った朝鮮人がどの面下げてものを言わんとするのか。恐らく大東亜圏内に於いては足を容るる場所もないであろう。それかと言って今更米、英に走ることが出来ようか。朝鮮を滅亡に導くものは、常に朝鮮人自体であることに気付かなければならぬ。

そればかりではない。一人でも志願に漏れたものが侮った場合諸君の後輩が恬然として内地学徒と机を並べて勉学が出来ると思うのであろうか。又斯くの如き非国民の朝鮮人に専門学校程度以上の高等教育の必要があると思うのであろうか。志願を渋るものの内には種々な込み入った理由を持って居る。それらの理由には反面の真理を認めぬこともない。然し今日の朝鮮人が真に時局に目醒め喜んで身命を皇国の為めに献ぐるに於いては当然の帰結として間もなく解決の出来る問題であろう。又斯くまで皇国臣民としての忠誠を献げて尚且つ解決が着かなかったら、その時こそ堂々と要求し得ることではないか。

何れにしても朝鮮を生かすものは朝鮮人自らの手にあるのだ。朝鮮人の進むべき道は朝鮮人自らが拓くべきではないか。自分が斯くの如く絶叫する所以のものは、何も軍部の依頼を受けたのでもなければ、将亦当局に買収されたのでもない。唯唯皇民の一人でありわけても朝鮮人の一人として此の状態を見ては安閑として居られないからに過ぎないのだ。自分は生を朝鮮に享け朝鮮の事情を能く知っているものの一人として志願の意志を容易に表明しないものの心理を倶さに解剖してみると、色々な屁理屈は志願を遁れんとする口実に過ぎないということを断言して憚らないのだ。

由来朝鮮には甚だ誤れる家庭的執着心が濃厚にある。丙子の胡乱と言えば、現代の青年は別として少しくも年取った人は皆知っていることと思う。今を距る三百八年前に於ける朝鮮の大事変である。清兵が朝鮮に侵入して王様は顕官重臣を引連れて後塵し南漢城に立て籠もって清兵のために取り囲まるること四十五日、朝鮮のためには危急存亡の一大危機に直面して居ったのだ。

斯くの如き国家の大事に当って真剣に此の難局を打開せんとするものは一人も居らなかった。甲論乙駁徒らに各々自己の説を固持し口論のみを以て終始した。都承旨鄭廣敬の如きは、老父避難の地が清兵の難に罹ったと聞いて『方寸錯乱、神魂已に散じ、職責を尽くす能わず』と称して辞表を提出して帰った。副校理尹集は和平論者を叩き斬ろうとまで敦圉いた程の極端なる主戦論者であったに拘わらず、祖父妻子兄弟の避難地南陽に賊軍が侵入したと聞いて是又『心神喪失、視聴迷錯、正気を失えるが如く、任務に堪えない』と言って解職を請うて退去してしまった。

極端なのは当時の総理大臣で参謀総長の職を兼ねて居った金瑬はどうであったか。王妃は江華島に避難し、主君は戦備の薄いのに憂慮し、戦費や兵糧に日夜苦慮せるに拘わらず、瑬の私邸は官軍を以て警護し、その妻は駕轎に乗って往来し、その財は七十駄に及んで居ったというのである。一国の宰相が斯くの如くである。自己あって主君なく、家あって国家なしの態度である。国辱も名誉もあったものではないではないか。

朝鮮人が皆が皆そうとは思って居らぬ、又我々朝鮮人の魂がもとからそうだとは考えない。歴史が証明している通り我々朝鮮人にも義憤が躍動して居り大義に生きんとするの魂が潜在しているのだ。然しながら永年の文弱生活は遂に国家を忘れ利己に走るの卑屈なる精神を生み今日に流れて来て居るのだ。現代の朝鮮の親は余りに子に頼り過ぎる通弊がある。親として子に望む所以のものは、自己の系統を永遠無窮に継続するにある。永遠無窮に継続するの意味は子孫が繁栄して系統を絶やさないことのみを意味するばかりでなく、家門の名誉を辱めないことをも当然含まなければならぬ。

然るに今日の朝鮮の父祖は老いて子孫に頼り度い気持ちが一杯だ。子や孫は花のように観賞物のように何時迄も自分の膝下に置いて置かねば承知しないのだ。何か男らしい仕事でもしようとすると直に差し止めて消極退嬰に導くのだ。一体親が子を設けて老後に於いてその子の厄介になろう、面倒を見て貰おうという親の心理が解せぬではないか。誠に意気地のない、唾棄すべき無気力な笑うべきことである。父祖や両親は何時までも生きていられるものではない。自己の子孫の生命は永い。世の親は利己的な悪を棄てて我が子の将来の繁栄を祈念するを以て満足すべきではないか。

殊に昔のような封建時代なら兎も角も現代の如き世界を舞台に活躍しつつある時勢に於いて猫の額のような朝鮮に於いて何をなそうとするのだ。親が子を腰巾着にしようとする愛情は犬や猫にだって濃厚にある。人間は斯くの如き動物愛に溺れてはならぬ筈だ。子供が親に孝養を尽くすということは義務でもなければ法律でもない。天理に基づく道徳だ。親の要求がなくても心から湧いて出なければならぬ。親孝行は人類道徳の根本である。然し親の腰巾着になって居ることばかりが親孝行ではない。

現代の若き青年よ、旧態を一新せよ！諸君の活舞台は広く広く開かれているのだ。陋習を打破し堅き決心を以て親を老祖父母を説きふせて勇躍千歳一遇の舞台に登れ。この興廃は諸君の双肩に懸っているのだ。

或るものは徴用されても志願はしないと言ったそうだが、何という卑屈な賎むべき慎むべき根性であろう。自己の生命さえ安全であれば、踏まれても、蹴られても犬になっても猫になっても好いというのか。徴用という意味を御存じないのだ。徴用されて必ずしも朝鮮や内地のみで働かされるとは限らない。内地や朝鮮の如き貧弱なる資源を持っている所で、何の徴用が必要であろう。徴用されても必然的に第一戦に往って勇敢なる兵士と共に働くのだ。矢張り戦場へ行くのだ。一方は剣や銃を執って闘い、一方はスコップやハンマや、鶴嘴を執って闘うだけの差なのだ。矢張り敵の空襲を受けることも覚悟せねばならぬ。敵の砲弾の洗礼も受けなければならぬ。何時戦死するか判らぬ立派なる帝国軍人として戦死するのと徴用人として戦死するのと何方が名誉だ。朝鮮の学徒に一人の徴用者が出たとしたら、それこそ朝鮮人の面目は丸潰れだ。

人間は信念に生きる生物である。信念のある所に努力が生じ、希望が湧き、安心が伴い、歓喜があるのだ。我々の生きる道は忠良なる日本臣民として身命を君国に献げて御奉公申し上ぐるにあるのみなのだ。この信念を堅持せねばならぬ。絶対無条件である。期日は眼前に差し迫っている。速やかに躊躇なく決心しようではないか。

Source: https://archive.org/details/kjnp-1943-11-18/page/n2/mode/1up