“Even prison will not save you”: unmarried young Korean women feared sexual enslavement in Imperial Japan’s wartime labor conscription, but officials said evaders would be imprisoned and then conscripted anyway (September 1944)

By early 1944, months before Japan formally promulgated the Women’s Labor Volunteer Corps Ordinance in August 1944, reports from colonial Korea described young unmarried women rushing into early marriages to avoid labor conscription. Their panic was not irrational. Korean women had already heard widespread reports of abuse associated with wartime labor mobilization, and many evidently feared that being taken away for “labor service” could expose them to sexual exploitation or trafficking.

Some women may have concluded that imprisonment or a heavy fine was still preferable to conscription. The colonial authorities appear to have anticipated precisely that response.

On September 6, 1944, only two weeks after the ordinance was promulgated on August 23, the following informational article warned that women who attempted to evade mobilization would not escape merely by serving a prison sentence or paying a fine. After completing their punishment, they would still be conscripted.

The ordinance gave the Japanese state a formal legal framework for mobilizing unmarried women and girls between the ages of twelve and forty for wartime labor connected to the Imperial Army, Navy, and other state-directed industries. Calling these organizations “volunteer corps” was therefore deeply misleading: participation was backed by criminal penalties, including imprisonment and substantial fines.

What is especially revealing is the article’s evasive tone. Even after the ordinance had been promulgated, it continued to characterize reports about female conscription as false or exaggerated rumors. It suggested that women were panicking largely because they feared low wages, and reassured readers that the ordinance would not be implemented in Korea immediately. In other words, the authorities simultaneously denied or minimized the policy while explaining the punishments awaiting anyone who resisted it.

This article seems to undermine common revisionist claims that the wartime recruitment of Korean women into Imperial Japan's system of sexual exploitation was fundamentally voluntary. It shows Imperial Japan mobilizing women through threats of imprisonment and fines, attempting to prevent evasion, and publicly downplaying the very coercive system it was preparing to enforce.

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo) September 6, 1944

Misunderstandings and Questions About White Paper Conscription
Roundtable on Labor Conscription
Guidance and Paternal Care Await
You Cannot Escape Even by Paying a Fine

[Telephone report from Haeju] The sight of labor-conscripted warriors bravely fighting on the labor front is the most noble expression of the boundless strength of the mighty Empire’s war power. This “white-paper call-up” is the greatest duty of imperial subjects, second only to military call-up itself.

However, the purpose of national labor conscription has not been thoroughly understood among the general public, and some people have various doubts and misunderstandings. Therefore, the Hwanghae Province bureau of this newspaper invited officials, including Mr. Yamaguchi, chief of the provincial Mining and Industry Department, and held a roundtable discussion on labor conscription.

Participants: Mr. Yamaguchi, chief of the provincial Mining and Industry Department; Mr. Ayano Masa, official of the Labor Affairs Section; Mr. Ichinose, Mayor of Haeju; Mr. Ito, chief of the Social Affairs Section; Mr. Matsumoto, chief of the Labor Affairs Section; Mr. Matsushita, chief of the Haeju Police Station; and the Hwanghae bureau of this newspaper.

Newspaper: First, please explain what labor conscription is, what kinds of people are conscripted, how they are conscripted, and the purpose and method of the system.

Mr. Yamaguchi, chief of the provincial Mining and Industry Department: 

Labor conscription in Korea has a distinctive meaning, compared with labor conscription in mainland Japan, because it is placed alongside military conscription. Military conscription sends all qualified men into the army without distinction between rich and poor. In the same spirit as being called up as a soldier, and with the attitude of answering the call on the home front, qualified persons, without distinction between rich and poor, are to work in vital factories and mines.

There are two types of labor conscription: general labor conscription and conscription of designated age groups. In addition, there is also labor mobilization mediated by public officials, but people seem generally to confuse this with the Patriotic Labor Service Corps.

Mr. Ichinose, Mayor of Haeju: The investigation of those subject to labor conscription has been completed, and lists have been prepared by age. Based on instructions from the Governor-General's Office, the mayors and county heads on the front line issue summonses to those subject to conscription, conduct physical examinations and other detailed investigations, and report to the provincial governor.

If there are more qualified persons than the planned number to be conscripted, then the orders are delivered after drawing lots by the fairest possible method. General labor conscription is carried out with certain persons as the target. In that case, various circumstances are taken into consideration. But conscription of designated age groups, like military conscription, is carried out without being bound by individual circumstances, and qualified persons are to be conscripted.

Newspaper: It seems that exemption orders from labor conscription have been issued.

Mr. Yamaguchi, chief of the provincial Mining and Industry Department: Even now, in general labor conscription, various circumstances are being taken into account. As for exemption orders, we have not officially received instructions from the Governor-General's Office.

Newspaper: I think there are cases where considerable numbers are taken even from non-conscripted factories, mines, and other workplaces. Since such places are directly contributing to the strengthening of military power, it would be somewhat troublesome if workers were taken from them. Are there any special measures?

Mr. Ichinose, Mayor of Haeju: Conscription of designated age groups is unavoidable, but in the case of general labor conscription, we will take full care so that production will not be reduced.

Newspaper: Rumors are spreading that women will also be conscripted, and public sentiment is unsettled. Will the Women's Labor Volunteer Corps Ordinance also be applied in Korea?

Mr. Yamaguchi, chief of the provincial Mining and Industry Department: Conditions in Korea differ from those in mainland Japan, so it is not a matter of applying it immediately. Rather, since there is a large source of male labor, the first thing is to thoroughly strengthen male labor mobilization. As for women, one can think of them engaging in agriculture in place of men, or taking up labor actively. I think people may be confusing this with male labor conscription.

Newspaper: It seems that the purpose of labor conscription has not been fully understood.

Mr. Ito, chief of the Social Affairs Section: That is certainly true. The Labor Conscription Ordinance was promulgated in July 1939, and the Military Conscription Ordinance was promulgated in August 1943. Yet the purpose of the older law, the Labor Conscription Ordinance, has not been thoroughly understood and is generally feared. I think people may suspect that, if they are conscripted, they will be used for low wages, because the relief and assistance laws have not been fully understood. This is partly because the authorities have not done enough publicity.

Newspaper: I think the Military Conscription Ordinance is well understood because it had already been tested through the volunteer soldier system. What punishment is there for those who evade labor conscription?

Mr. Matsushita, Haeju Police chief: The policy is strict punishment. However, at present there have been no outrageous persons who fled after receiving an order.

Mr. Ayano Masa, official of the Labor Affairs Section: The law says that those who evade labor conscription are subject to imprisonment for up to one year or a fine of up to 1,000 yen. Apparently there are some misguided people who think that, once they have served the sentence or paid the fine, they can escape labor conscription. But once the imprisonment is finished, they will immediately be conscripted. In other words, they will have earned priority for conscription.

Newspaper: Please explain concretely the treatment of conscripted laborers.

Mr. Ayano Masa: Under the Wage Control Ordinance, basic wages have been established by age. Suppose a person who had been receiving 100 yen is conscripted and receives only 70 yen. If he submits to the company or factory a declaration recognized by the mayor and police chief, then the company or factory will separately provide relief assistance for the difference. In addition, welfare facilities are complete, so there is nothing to worry about.

Newspaper: What about the activities of workers supplied to mainland Japan two or three years ago?

Mr. Matsumoto, chief of the Labor Affairs Section: The year before last, I visited Ōtani Heavy Industries and four other places. In each case, they were people from our home district whom I had recruited and mediated for. They were receiving double the pay, and many workers were very pleased to receive an average of 120 yen. Some returned because of illness, but among those who have now returned to Korea after completing their terms, some are even saying that they want to go back to their former factories.

Newspaper: It would be good to clearly inform people in advance where they will be sent for labor conscription.

Mr. Ichinose, Mayor of Haeju: From the standpoint of counter-espionage, the authorities seem hesitant about that. It is written in the labor summons.

Mr. Ito, chief of the Social Affairs Section: If the company has welfare and benefit facilities in place and provides guidance with paternal care, then people will gladly go. On this point, the Governor-General's Office is making firm arrangements with the Ministry of Welfare.

Newspaper: Please explain concretely the relief and support for conscripted laborers.

Mr. Ichinose, Mayor of Haeju: This time, two people from the city office and two or three town council clerks will also be going. I treat labor conscription in the same spirit as military conscription, based on the purpose of the system. Naturally, that is how it must be.

Mr. Ito, chief of the Social Affairs Section: A person does not lose his previous status because of labor conscription. For example, when a government official is conscripted, he is made to answer the call while retaining his current official status, and even during the period of labor conscription, the years count toward his pension. At companies, too, it is only natural that the period of labor conscription should be included in the calculation of years of service.

Mr. Ichinose, Mayor of Haeju: In order to make relief for conscripted laborers complete, the city intends to establish a relief association like the Military Relief Association, assign specialized staff, and entrust the work in town councils to enthusiastic people, so that all possible measures are taken.

Newspaper: Is there any possibility that the period of labor conscription will be extended?

Mr. Yamaguchi, chief of the provincial Mining and Industry Department: Within Korea, it is two years, while in mainland Japan it is one year. The period is absolutely not to be extended. One year means strictly one year.

Mr. Ito, chief of the Social Affairs Section: The labor conscription period is at most two years. The state never lies. There is no need to worry about such things.

Newspaper: If a parent or sibling is critically ill, or if a family member is sick, will the conscripted person be allowed to return home?

Mr. Ayano Masa, official of the Labor Affairs Section: He will be allowed to return, and even his travel expenses will be paid. However, in such cases, it must be by official telegram.

Mr. Ichinose, Mayor of Haeju: The mayor or county head is to certify it, so people should apply without hesitation.

Newspaper: If a person becomes ill during labor conscription, will he be allowed to recuperate at home?

Mr. Ayano Masa, official of the Labor Affairs Section: Of course. In that case, the labor conscription will be canceled.

Mr. Yamaguchi, chief of the provincial Mining and Industry Department: Labor conscription is placed alongside military conscription. It is a home-front call-up, and at the same time it is a great harvest in the training of Imperial subjects. Without distinction between rich and poor, and regardless of whether one has education or not, people are conscripted just like soldiers. Therefore, they must steel themselves to be called up gladly.

Mr. Ayano Masa, official of the Labor Affairs Section: In one county, a labor affairs official himself was qualified and was conscripted this time. Precisely because the authorities conduct labor conscription fairly and openly, the general public must absolutely trust the authorities and gladly rush forward to the honor of answering the call on the home front.

Newspaper: Are there any inspiring stories about labor conscription?

Mr. Ichinose, Mayor of Haeju: Two or three days ago, a young man rushed into the mayor’s office and pleaded, “Please conscript me without fail.” He was a reliable young man who had already received his papers and currently had a job. At a time when there are outrageous people trying to evade labor conscription, I was deeply moved. At the very least, I want people to answer labor conscription with the same spirit of service and vigor as this young man.

[Transcription]

京城日報 1944年9月6日

”白紙”の誤解と疑問
徴用座談会
待っている指導と親心
罰金を払っても免かれない

【海州電話】徴用戦士が勇躍勤労戦線に敢闘する姿こそ最も尊く、逞しい帝国の戦力の無限な力強さで、この白紙応召こそ応召に準ずる帝国臣民の最大義務である。然るに国民徴用というものの趣旨が一般に徹底せず種々な疑問や誤解を抱いているものがあるので、本社黄海道総局では山口道鉱工部長以下当局者を招き徴用に対する座談会を開催した。

出席者：山口道鉱工部長、勤務課綾野屬、一瀬海州府尹、伊藤社会課長、松本労務主任、松下海州署長、本社黄海総局

本社：先ず徴用とはどんなものか、どんな人がどんな風に徴用されるか、その趣旨や方法について御説明を．．．

山口鉱工部長：朝鮮の徴用は徴兵と対象するところに内地の徴用と特異的な意味がある。徴兵は貧富の差別なく適格者は皆兵隊に行く。その兵に召されるのと同じ気持で銃後応召の精神を以て緊要な重用工場、鉱山で貧富の差別なく適格者は働いて貰う。徴用には一般徴用と指定年齢層徴用の二種類がある。このほかに官斡旋の労務動員もあるが、一般に勤労報国隊と混同しているようだ。

一瀬海州府尹：徴用該当者の調査が済み年齢別に名簿が出来ている。本府の指令に基き第一線の府尹、郡守が徴用対象者に出頭命令書を出し身体検査その他を細密を調査して道知事に報告する。徴用予定人数に比して適格者が多い場合は最も公平な方法で抽籤して令書を伝達する。一般徴用は一定の人間を対象として徴用が行われる。この場合は各般の事情を考慮するが指定年齢層の徴用は徴兵と同じく個人の事情に拘泥せず適格者は徴用することになっている。

本社：徴用免除令が出たようだが．．．

山口鉱工部長：一般徴用はいまでも諸般の事情を加減している。免除令は正式に本府から指令を受けていない。

本社：非徴用工場、鉱山その他事業所でも相当抜かれる場合もあると思う。これは直接戦力増強に貢献しているからとられると一寸困ると思うが、何か特別の対策はないか．．．

一瀬府尹：指定年齢層の徴用は已むを得ないが、一般徴用は充分に考慮して生産の低下を来すようなことのないように万全を期する。

本社：女子も徴用するとのデマが飛び人心が動揺しているが、女子挺身隊令は朝鮮にも適用するか．．．

山口鉱工部長：朝鮮は内地の事情とは違うからいますぐというわけにはいかない。それよりも男子の労務給源が多いから男子の労務強化を徹底強化することであるが、女子は男子に代って農業に従事するとか、積極的に勤労することが考えられる。男子の徴用と混同しているのではないかと思う。

本社：徴用の趣旨が徹底を欠いているようだが．．．

伊藤社会課長：確かにそうだ。徴用令は十四年七月発布され、徴兵令は十八年八月発布されたが、古くから出た法令の徴用令の趣旨は徹底せず一般に恐れられている。援護法が徹底せず徴用されると安い賃銀で使われるのではないかとの疑惧を抱いているのではないかと思う。それというものは当局の宣伝が足らなかったためもあるが．．．

本社：徴兵令は志願兵制度で試験済みだから徹底しているのだと思う。徴用を忌避するものの処罰は．．．

松下海州署長：厳罰方針だ。然し令書の伝達を受けて逃走した不届者はいまのところはない。

綾野屬：徴用を忌避するものは一年以下の懲役、一千円以下の罰金ーとあるので、それさえ済めば徴用を免れるのだという不心得ものがあるらしいが、これは懲役がすんだらすぐ徴用する。まあ徴用の優先権を獲得するわけだ。

本社：応徴士の待遇問題について具体的な説明を承りたい．．．

綾野屬：賃銀統制令により年齢別に基本賃金が制定している百円貰っていた人が徴用されて七十円しか貰えないという場合は府尹、署長の認めた申告書を会社、工場に提出すれば、その会社、工場から差額だけは別に援護補給することになっている。このほかに厚生施設も完全であり心配するようなことはない。

本社：二、三年前に内地へ供出した工員の活躍状況について。

松本労務主任：一昨年大谷重工業ほか四ヶ所を廻ってみた。何れも自分が募集し斡旋した郷土出身者で給料も倍額貰っており平均百二十円も貰っている工員が多く非常に喜んでいた。病気で帰ったものも中にはいるが、こんど満期解除で帰鮮したもので又もとの工場に行きたいと申出るものもあるような状態だ。

本社：徴用の行先を前以てはっきり知らせるとよういと思うが。

一瀬海州府尹：防諜上当局としても躊躇するようだ。令書に書き入れてある。

伊藤課長：福利、厚生施設が整っており親心を以て指導するような会社なら喜んで行く。この点は本府で厚生省としっかと打ち合せている。

本府：応徴士の援護について具体的な説明を．．．

一瀬海州府尹：今回府からも二人、町会書記も二、三人出るが私は徴用の趣旨から徴兵と同じ気持で取扱っている。また当然そうでなければならぬ。

伊藤課長：徴用によって徴用前の身分を失うようなことはない。例えば官吏が徴用されたときは現官のまま応徴せしめ徴用期間中といえども恩給年数が通算される。会社でも勤続年数を徴用期間を含んで通算することは当然だ。

一瀬海州府尹：府としては応徴者援護の完璧を期するため軍人援護会のように援護会を設け専門の職員を置き町会には熱のある人にこれを委嘱し万全を期したい。

本社：徴用期間を延長するようなことはないか．．．

山口鉱工部長：朝鮮内は二年だが、内地は一年ということになっている。期間は絶対に延長しないことになっている。一年は厳格なる一年だ．．．

伊藤課長：徴用期間は長くて二年である。国は決して嘘はいわない。こんなことには心配しなくてよいと思う。

本社：親兄弟が危篤だとか家族に病気しているものがあれば帰して貰えるか。

綾野屬：旅費まで支給して帰して貰える。但しこの場合には公電に限る。

一瀬海州府尹：府尹郡守が証明することになっているから遠慮なく申出ればよい。

本社：徴用中病気にかかった場合には帰宅療養を許すが．．．

綾野屬：勿論許す。この場合には徴用は解除される。

山口鉱工部長：徴用というものは徴兵と対象して銃後応召であると同時に皇民の錬成になるという大きな収穫であり、貧富の差別なく学問のあるとないと問わず兵隊と同じく徴用されるのだから喜んで召される気持を固めることだ。

綾野屬：或る郡で労務係員が適格者で今回徴用された事実がある。それだけに官としては公明正大に徴用するのだから一般は絶対に当局を信じ銃後応召の栄誉に欣然馳せ参じねばならぬ。

本社：徴用美談は．．．

一瀬海州府尹：二、三日前府尹室に飛び込み”私を是非徴用して下さい”と嘆願する一青年があった。最後も出ているし現在職をもっているしっかりした青年で徴用を忌避しようとする不届者があるとき私は非常に感激した。少なくともこの青年のような奉公心と気魄をもって応徴して貰いたい。

Source: Digital Newspaper Archive, National Library of Korea

See also:

• In 1944, Imperial Japan formally conscripted almost all unmarried Korean women ages 12-40 into a forced labor system that had already been used for years to traffic laborers into sex slavery according to testimonies of former comfort women (link)
• Terrified by rumors of forced labor conscription under the Imperial Army, young Korean women rushed into marriages to escape, prompting officials to hold April 1944 press conference to deny and deflect (link)

In 1944, Imperial Japan formally conscripted almost all unmarried Korean women ages 12-40 into a forced labor system that had already been used for years to traffic laborers into sex slavery according to testimonies of former comfort women

On August 23, 1944, Imperial Japan promulgated the Women's Labor Volunteer Corps Ordinance. This ordinance gave the state a formal legal framework to mobilize unmarried women and girls, ages 12 to 40, for wartime labor with the Imperial Army and Navy. According to this news article, those who refused could first be issued a labor-service order, then an “employment order,” and if they still refused, they could face up to one year in prison or a fine of up to 1,000 yen.

The article is striking because it openly admits what had changed. About four months before this ordinance, women’s “volunteer corps” had been organized through government guidance and encouragement. After August 1944, the system was backed by the National General Mobilization Act, with legal penalties for refusal. In other words, the “volunteer” label remained, but the legal reality became compulsory mobilization.

This also connects to an earlier news article from April 22, 1944, which I have also transcribed and translated below. That article reported a sudden surge in early marriages in the Dongdaemun Police Station district. Marriage-service businesses in the area were recording sharp increases in wedding registrations, and the article noted that the ages of brides and grooms had dropped. Some girls getting married were only fifteen or sixteen, and many were seventeen to twenty.

The April article explained the panic bluntly: rumors were spreading that women, too, would be conscripted for labor. In an April 1944 press conference, officials tried to calm the public by insisting that “women will absolutely not be conscripted” and urged people not to rush into “unnatural” marriages merely to avoid mobilization.

Four months later, that reassurance was effectively broken. The August ordinance formally targeted unmarried women and girls from age 12 to 40. Before this ordinance, young Korean men were served with white-paper (hakushi, 白紙) summonses to send them as compulsory labor to factories, farms, and construction sites under the guise of patriotic training.  This time, however, the white-paper summons started being served to young unmarried Korean women as well.

It may be that the panic spread, because word was getting out from the frontlines that at least some women who "volunteered" for labor with the Imperial military were being forced into sex work, and stories from sex trafficking victims were finally becoming widely known in the Korean public through the word of mouth. 

It turns out that there was at least one former Korean comfort woman who may  have been recruited through something similar to the White Paper conscription system of the August 1944 Women's Labor Volunteer Corps Ordinance. Let's look into the PDF file from the Korea Verband containing the testimonies of eight comfort women (link). Six of the eight testimonies describe some form of police or official involvement in the initial recruitment or abduction process.  Here is what Kim Bok-dong had to say about how she was recruited:

"I remember it was one day in the spring of 1941 when I was fifteen. A Japanese man in yellow clothes visited my house with a village-head and told my mother to send me to 'daishin tai' for the empire, since she had no son. Otherwise, he added, my family would be traitors and unable to live here. He also said that 'daishin tai' meant to go to work at a workshop producing army uniforms. He forced my mother to sign on the document. Despite my mother’s resistance, I ended up being drafted in this way."

On the one hand, if "daishin tai" refers to teishintai (挺身隊) - Labor Volunteer Corps - then her testimony seems to be consistent with a police representative serving her with a labor summons in accordance with the August 1944 ordinance. On the other hand, because Kim's account places the event in 1941, this seems inconsistent with recruitment under the August 1944 ordinance. There is a possibility that labor summons were already being served to Korean women as far back as 1941, and the August 1944 ordinance was merely formalizing a practice that had already been used on an informal basis.

According to another former Korean comfort woman, Ahn Jeomsun, calling up unmarried Korean women for compulsory labor was already going on 1942, two years before the August 1944 ordinance. She testified that she was forced into sex work with the Imperial military after she responded to an announcement asking all unmarried girls in the neighborhood to gather together:

"The year came when I turned thirteen, and it was fall. At that time the Pacific War had been going on for a while. It was 1942. The head of the neighborhood organization made an anouncement over the loudspeaker, asking all unmarried girls from one age to another (I can't remember precisely) to meet in front of the Boksagol neighborhood rice mill. Mother heard the announcement, and suggested we go together to see what it was all about ... Besides the neighborhood people, there were Japanese soldiers in uniform, Japanese in civilian clothes, and other Koreans. Those girls were all being weighed on the rice scale one by one. Tall girls and healthy ones were being put in a truck. Japanese soldiers were putting the girls in the truck, lifting them up."

This is yet another clue that suggests that the August 1944 ordinance may have merely been formalizing practices that were already being used long before the ordinance was promulgated. 

The ordinance included exemptions for illness, disability, and women who were the “central support” of their household. Marriage also removed women from the category of “unmarried women” targeted by the ordinance. But for young girls, especially those aged 12 to 17, marriage was hardly a realistic or humane form of protection. The result was that unmarried Korean women and girls in the final years of Japanese colonial rule faced a greatly expanded risk of coercive state mobilization and sexual abuse, with refusal backed by criminal punishment.

[Translation]

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo), August 23, 1944

The Hands and Strength of Unmarried Women
Hearing from Vice Minister of Welfare Aikawa
Contents of the Labor Ordinance
Those Who Refuse Will Receive a Separate White Paper Conscription Order

[Telephone report from Tokyo] The Ministry of Welfare will promulgate the Women’s Labor Volunteer Corps Ordinance on August 23rd, and it will go into effect the same day. At this grave moment in the war situation, the production front, pressing forward in arms production, is powerfully calling for the hands of unmarried women.

At present, the nations at war are each carrying out thoroughgoing labor mobilization with the full force of the state. Germany has begun a total mobilization, sending even women up to the age of fifty into factories. Britain, at the same time as the outbreak of war, issued a conscription order covering women up to the age of forty. In the United States, large numbers of women are even being mobilized into the armed forces.

In all of these countries, mobilization is focused solely on labor capacity, and women are mobilized without distinction between housewives and daughters. However, under the Women’s Labor Ordinance now being promulgated, warm consideration is being given to the role of the “household,” and the order is limited only to women without spouses.

Under this ordinance, those who ignore the demands of the state and refuse mobilization will be issued a white paper employment order. For those who still do not comply, the final means of punishment, namely imprisonment or a fine, has also been prepared. We asked Vice Minister of Welfare Aikawa about the main points of this Labor Ordinance.

Question: Who will be subject to the Volunteer Corps?

Answer: Those registered under the National Vocational Ability Reporting Ordinance; in other words, unmarried women from the age of twelve through forty.

Question: From a legal standpoint, how does this differ from the Volunteer Corps up to now?

Answer: Until now, “corps” have been formed through government guidance and encouragement. This time, however, it will be done under an ordinance based on the National General Mobilization Act, so there will be strict penalties for those who evade or fail to comply without reason.

Question: Who will be excluded?

Answer: Military civilian employees of the Army and Navy; employees of government offices; employees of factories or workplaces under government control or designation; those engaged in general mobilization work, such as metal refining workers and agricultural personnel; those who form the central support of household life; and those who are sickly or disabled. The interpretation of “central support” refers to people who, according to sound social common sense, would reasonably be recognized as such. For example, it means someone whose mother has died or is seriously ill, and who is in fact acting in the place of the housewife.

Question: Under what circumstances will someone be released from the obligation?

Answer: For example, if her marriage arrangements are settled and she marries, if she develops an illness that makes her unable to endure labor, or if an elder sister who had been acting in the place of the housewife is no longer there and the person herself must take her place, then she will be released simply upon application.

Question: Until now, there have been people who had to join the Volunteer Corps while others did not, giving rise to a sense of unfairness. How will things be from now on?

Answer: First, a written Labor Volunteer Service Order will be handed over. Those who do not mobilize in response to it will then be given an “employment order.” Anyone who fails to obey that order will, under the National General Mobilization Act, be punished by imprisonment for up to one year or a fine of up to 1,000 yen. Also, depending on actual circumstances, women currently working at banks or companies of lower urgency may be ordered to join and mobilize with the women’s corps.

Gyeongseong Ilbo (Keijo Nippo), April 22, 1944

Toward Proper Marriage
The Streets Are Flooded with Early-Marriage Couples

It is said that marriages have been increasing, but to what extent? Let us take a look at the marriage situation within the jurisdiction of the Dongdaemun Police Station since the Greater East Asia War began.

It is true that the number has been rising day by day. Looking at the figures, the Oriental Ceremonial Department handled 123 cases in fiscal 1942, 160 cases in fiscal 1943, and 102 cases from January of this year through April 20. The Donam-dong Beauty Ceremonial Department handled 48 cases in fiscal 1942, 86 cases in fiscal 1943, and already 82 cases from January of this year through April 20, nearly the same number as in the whole previous year. In each case, the increase this year has been sharp.

What deserves attention is that, until around this time last year, the marriage age was mostly 22/23 to 25/26 for men, and 19 to 21/22 for women. Since January of this year, however, the marriage age has fallen for both men and women. Many of the men are now 18/19 to 22/23, while among the women there are even extreme cases of 15- or 16-year-olds, with the majority being from 17/18 to 20 years old.

It is, of course, a happy thing to hold a proper wedding in line with the national policy of “give birth and multiply.” However, there is a sense that some are being carried along by rumors that, along with general conscription, women too will be conscripted, and are rushing into unnatural marriages in order to escape conscription. Since women will absolutely not be conscripted, the authorities are calling on the public to be careful and to hold proper marriages.

[Transcription]

京城日報 1944年8月23日

未婚女性の手と力
相川厚生次官に聴く
勤労令の内容
拒む者は別の白紙

【東京電話】厚生省では女子勤労挺身隊令を二十三日公布、即日実施することとなった。戦局の重大の秋に兵器生産に邁進する生産人は未婚女性の手を力強く呼び求めている。いま交戦各国はそれぞれ国を挙げ徹底的な勤労動員を断行。ドイツでは五十歳までの女子をも工場に送るという根こそぎ動員を開始。英国も開戦と同時に婦人四十歳までを含む徴用令を発布。米国では女子を軍隊にも多数出動している。

これらの国々の動員事情は何れも稼働ということにのみ主眼が置かれ、主婦と娘の区別なく動員されているが、この度公布される女子勤労令では『家庭』の役割を考慮して無配偶女子にのみに限るという温い配慮が払われている。

これには国の要請を無視して出動を拒む者には就職令出動の白紙が発生せられるが、これにも従わないものに対しては体刑か罰金に処するという最後手段の用意もあるというのがこの法令である。この勤労令の主なる点はどういうところかとの問に対して相川厚生次官に答えて貰おう。

問：どういうものが挺身隊の対象となるか。

答：国民職業能力申告令による国民登録者すなわち満十二歳以上四十歳までの無配偶女子である。

問：これまでの挺身隊とは法律の上からみてどう違うか。

答：従来は政府の指導奨励によって『隊』を作って来たが、こんどは国家総動員法に基く法令によることになったので、理由なく忌避したり応じない者には強い罰則がある。

問：どういうものが除外されるか。

答：陸海軍軍属、官衙、政府管理あるいは指定の工場、事業場の従業員、金属製錬業や農業要員などの総動員業務に従事している者、および家庭生活の根軸となっている者および病弱、不具者などである。『根軸』の解釈は円満な社会通念で無理もないと思われる人で、例えば母親が死亡あるいは重病で当人が事実上主婦代りをしているような者を指す。

問：どういう時に解除されるか。

答：たとえば当人の縁談が整い結婚するとか勤労に耐えないような病状になった時、あるいは家庭の主婦代りを勤めていた姉がいなくなり当人がこれに代るような時は願出により簡単に解除される。

問：いまでは挺身隊に加わらなければならない者があり、不公平の向があったが、これからはどうか。

答：最初挺身勤労令書の白紙が渡され、それに出動しない者には『就職令書』が追って渡され、この命令に従わない者には総動員法により一年以下の懲役あるいは一千円以下の罰金に処せられる。又緊要度の低い銀行会社に現に働いている者は実情によっては女子隊に加入出動するように命ずる時もある。

京城日報 1944年4月22日

正当な結婚へ
街は早婚組の氾濫

結婚が増えて来たというが、どの程度だろう。ここに大東亜戦後の東大門署管内の結婚状況を覗いてみよう。日増しに増加の一途を辿っているのは事実だが、件数で調べて見ると東洋礼式部は十七年度が百二十三件、十八年度が百六十件、本年正月から四月二十日までに百二件に達している。敦岩町美容礼式部が十七年度には四十八件、十八年度は八十六件、本年正月から昨二十日までがすでに前年一ヶ年間の件数と略同数の八十二件で何れも本年に入り激増を示している。

注目すべき点は去年の今頃までの婚姻年齢は男は二十二、三才から二十五、六才で、女は十九才から二十一、二才までが殆ど大部分であったが今年一月以来は結婚年齢が男女ともに低下し男は十八、九才から二十二、三才の者が多く女は甚だしいのは十五、六才の者もあり大半は十七、八才から二十才までの者という現状である。

”生めよ殖せよ”の国策の線に沿うし正当な結婚を挙げるのはお目出たいが、一般徴用に伴い女子にも徴用があるという噂に乗ぜられて徴用をまぬかれようと不自然な結婚を急ぐ感があるので女子は絶対に徴用せぬから正しき結婚を挙げるよう一般の注意を要望している。

Source: Digital Newspaper Archive, National Library of Korea

See also:

• Terrified by rumors of forced labor conscription under the Imperial Army, young Korean women rushed into marriages to escape, prompting officials to hold April 1944 press conference to deny and deflect (link)
• ‘Selfless’ Imperial Japanese policeman visits pregnant Korean mother daily and delivers her baby after forcing her husband into Imperial war service: a 1945 ‘heartwarming’ propaganda tale (link)
• Koreans tried to bribe their way out of Imperial Japan’s forced labor conscription, but patriotic student informants turned them in (June 1945) (link)
• Testimonies of former Comfort Women from Korea Verband (link)